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OUTLINES 



OF THE 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION, 



FOR 



Teachers' Training Classes 

AND ALL WHO DESIRE AN ELEMENTARY KN(»\VL- 
EDGE OF THE SUBJECT. 



BY 

/ 
W. D. JOHNSON, Ph. M. 

PRINCIPAL OF THE COOPERSTOWN HIGH SCHOOL. 



1899 

Crist, Scott & Parshall. Publishers. 

cooperstown, n y. 







45162 



Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-nine, 

By CRIST, SCOTT & PARSHALL. 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



TWO COPIES RECEIVED. 



JPY, 







PREFACE. 

When called upon to instruct a class in the history of 
education in a New York State training class. I could 
find no book covering all requirements in the subject by 
the Department of Public Instruction. I found many 
books which contain satisfactory information on many 
topics in the training class syllabus, while some topics 
could be found discussed in the largest encyclopedias, 
only. 

When the pupil prepared his lessons from these nu- 
merous and exhaustive treatises, he often wasted time by 
reading much not essential and often failed to understand 
what he read. After three years of careful reading, I 
have succeeded in compiling notes on the subject for my 
class. These notes were dictated to my last class. The 
final examination was readily passed. Believing from 
this experience and from the expressions of other teach- 
ers of training classes that these notes may be of service 
to other pupils, I venture to have the notes published. 

It is the wish of the author that this volume may be 
received in the spirit in which it is sent out. The book 
is intended to be a guide, only, to the study of the history 
of education. 

I find that a pupil comprehends a subject very much 
more easily and readily, if he begins the study of its out- 
lines, such as this volume is intended to be on the History 
of Education. With this book in the pupil's hands and 
many of the following list of books in the teacher's hands, 



4 OUTLINES OF THE 

and accessible to the pupils, excellent work may be done 
with the subject. 

The books that have been consulted in its composition 
are Compayre's History of Education, Quick's Educa- 
tional Reformers, S. G. Williams's History of Education, 
Painter's History of Education, Browning's Educational 
Theories, Boone's Education in the United States, Schep- 
moes's Rise and Progress of the New York State School 
System, and others. 

THE AUTHOR. 
Cooperstown, N. Y., June i, 1898. 



NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

The edition that was published last year was received 
with so much favor that the author has been encouraged 
to rewrite the book. This revision has two to three 
times as much matter in it as the first edition had. In its 
present form it is free from errors that are incident to first 
editions, and contains such changes as are necessary to 
keep the book abreast with the times. 

THE AUTHOR. 
Cooperstown, N. Y., July 18, 1899. 



. . . The History of Education ... 

CHAPTER I. 

CHINESE. 

China is one of the oldest nations of the world, but the 
Chinese civihzation of to-day is practically what it was 
centuries ago. They are not progressive in government 
and certainly not in education. Their education is formal, 
mechanical and traditional. No innovations are toler- 
ciled Mental development is not sought after; memory 
of past usages is a result. 

Children are sent to school at six or seven years of age 
and taught to read and write. This is a difficult accom- 
plishment, because the Chinese language is one of 
sign-characters. Morality is taught and honor to par- 
ents inculcated. Punishments are severe. Examina- 
tions in school and those to secure political preferment 
are required and difficult. 

Results : People patient, outwardly moral, hypocritical 
and in authority tyrannical, no hope of a life beyond 
the grave, parents honored by children, persons in au- 
thority respected, memory trained, education ancestral. 

The greatest educator that China ever had was Con- 
fucius, who died in 478 B. C. The date of his birth is 
uncertain. His renown has given his descendants the 



6 OUTLINES OF THE 

highest honors to be bestowed by the empire. His writ- 
ings have been, from his time to the present, the princi- 
pal objects of study in all the schools of the empire. The 
scope of his philosophy is limited to the present life ; his 
sayings do not indicate that he had any definite belief in 
an existence after death. His precepts are noted for 
their practical wisdom. He did what he could to give 
efficacy to the thought that lies as the basis of the Chinese 
government — the ruler should be as a father and the peo- 
ple as children. His sayings, found in the ''Analects," 
indicate his genius and character. Some of these are. — 
-Learning without thought is labor lost. The necessary 
conditions of go^'-ernment are sufficiency of food, military 
equipment and confidence of the people in their ruler. 
What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do 
to others. 



HINDOOS. 



The Hindoos live in India and are a branch of the Ary- 
an race. The wealth of their country has led different 
European countries to seek its conquest. It is now un- 
der the control of England and its ancient laws and cus- 
toms are rapidly becoming things of the past. 

Their education is a caste system. The child at six or 
seven is sent to school, which is presided over by a Brah- 
man, who receives no salary. Gifts from his patrons are 
his only means of remuneration. He is held in great 
reverence. Reading, writing, ceremonial customs, mor- 
ality, and arithmetic are taught. Women are not edu- 
cated. A twelve year course was provided for after the 
elementary course was taken. This course was chiefly 
intended for the Brahmans, though students for the 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 7 

second and third castes might take it. It embraced 
grammar, history, philosophy, mathematics, law, medi- 
cine, astronomy and poetry. The Hindoos made great 
proficiency in astronomy and mathematics. They are 
supposed to have originated the decimal system of 
notation. 

Brahmanism is the religion of the people and the Brah- 
mans are the educated persons. Sanskrit is the lan- 
guage of the people and the Veda is one of the principal 
books in it. The people believe that God is in everything, 
hence all things in nature are divine. 

There are four classes of society: ist, Brahmans, or 
holy teachers ; 2d, kings and soldiers ; 3d, traders ; 4th, 
servants. Social standing and vocation are determined 
by the accident of birth. Personal talent and individual- 
ity are therefore crushed out. This could lead to nothing 
else than a voluntary abasement and a contempt for the 
high aspirations of life. 

The caste system has made the Hindoos "contented 
with their lot — whether good or bad, high or low — and 
in doing so has provided a kind of universal happiness, 
which, if not of the highest kind, was better than none." 
They lack force of character to lift them to a high degree 
of civilization. 



ISRAELITES. 



A study of the theocratic education of the Jews is very 
interesting. They were surrounded by idolatrous peoples 
but were steadfast in their worship of the true God. The 
character of the civilization of Europe and America can 
be traced to the Jews. 

The child at six entered school. Boys learned reading, 



8 OUTLINES OF THE 

writing, natural history, astronomy, and geometry. The 
Bible was early used. Girls learned to prepare the food 
for the table, to make cloth, and to sing and dance. Great 
stress was put upon moral and religious instruction and 
love of country. The father was the principal teacher. 
''Family life is the origin of the primitive society where 
the notion of the state is almost unknown, and where 
God is the real king." The child was taught to be the 
faithful servant of God. A love of country, and a 
knowledge of the Jews' past history were inculcated at 
the three annual festivals, the passover, the pentecost and 
the feast of the tabernacles. The celebration of these 
festivals compelled every adult to appear annually before 
the temple in Jerusalem. Great reverence was showm 
teachers. In dicipline the Jews believed, "He that 
spareth his rod, hateth his son, but he that loveth him 
chasten eth him betimes." 

The ideal sought after in education was the perfect 
man. ''Ye shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am 
holy !" "Therefore shall ye lay up these my words in your 
heart and in your soul, and bind them for a sign upon 
your hand, that they may be as frontlets between your 
eyes. * '•' "^ And thou shall write them upon the 
door-posts of thine house and upon the gates." It would 
appear from this that the ability to read and wTite was 
compulsory. Besides the schools conducted by the par- 
ents, there were the schools of the prophets, presided 
over by venerable and able men. These were for the 
study of medicine, poetry and law^ 

Before the advent of Christianity, education was do- 
mestic ; after its introduction, it became public. In 64 
A. D. each town was compelled to support a public 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 



school. The Jews had a contempt for other people and 
their education. There were a few Jewish scholars, how- 
ever, who read Plato and Aristotle. 



EGYPTIANS. 



The pyramids and other remains of Egypt's past glory 
mdicate that the Egyptians were a wise and intelligent 
oeople. They were probably the first civilized people in 
the world. Philosophers from other countries came here 
to learn of the wisdom of a people who furnished a Moses 
and a Solomon. They had a knowledge of many arts, 
unknown to-day. The colored decorations found in their 
ruined temples have not been reproduced since their time. 
They manufactured glass, were skilled at spinning and 
weaving, and were expert in iron and steel manufactur- 
ing-. 

Their system of education was priestly. The people 
were divided into castes, the priests occupying the high- 
est one. The priests had fabulous wealth, exercised a 
wide influence, and had the best education that any land 
could afford. The priesthood was strictly hereditary. 
The priests were well versed in all knowledge of their 
day, since out of their numbers came the physicians, 
judges, civil officers and councilors of the king, who also 
was of them. After the priestly class, came in order the 
military class, the farmers, the mechanics, and the com- 
mon laborers. 

The education of the lower classes, which was under 
the management of the priests, was elementary. The 
tradesmen were taught reading, writing and arithmetic, 
the latter concretely by plays. The others were taught 



10 OUTLINES OF THE 

by their parents to do what the accident of birth destined 
them to do. Writing was largely hieroglyphic. Paper 
was made from the papyrus plant. The lower classes 
were taught to reverence the priesthood, religion and 
traditional customs. 

Among the noted institutions for the education of the 
priests were those at Thebes and Memphis. Music and 
gymnastics were not considered means of culture. Greek 
was not taught until the seventh century B. C. 



PHOENICIANS. 



Phoenicia extends along the eastern coast of the Medi- 
terranean through about two degrees of latitude. Some 
believe that the Phoenicians were a distinct race from the 
Hebrews, others that they were an offshoot from thf 
Semitic stock. The Phoenician dialect was closely akir 
to Hebrew. Their religion was pantheistic. The rivers 
were sacred to gods and the trees to goddesses. 

Their education was largely commercial. Their mari- 
time enterprise excelled that of any other nation of 
antiquity. The young were taught such subjects as 
would make them expert navigators and expert com- 
mercial people. 

To them is ascribed the invention of arithmetic, of our 
alphabet, and of writing. Next after the Jews, they have 
exerted the widest influence upon the Western world. 



^:n' 



CHAPTER II, 



EDUCATION AMONG THE GREEKS. 

Greece is about the size of Maine. It is the oldest 
civiHzed country in Europe. Its cHmate is healthful, its 
soil rich, its hills and valleys picturesque, and its coasts 
deeply indented. It is adapted to be the home of a pro- 
gressive and cultured people. Anciently, Greece was 
divided into a number of small states. Athens and Spar- 
ta, cities in two of these states, had noted systems of 
education and illustrious educators. 

The ancient Greeks attained a higher degree of intel- 
lectual activity than had existed up to their time. Their 
downfall at the hands of the conquering Romans checked 
the cause of education, and not until the revival of 
learning in the 15th century did Europe rise to the in- 
tellectual level of ancient Greece. The Greeks were 
eminent in philosophy, literature, geography, the fine 
arts, mathematics, and oratory. The study that students 
of the last few centuries have given to these branches of 
Greek learning has contributed not a little to modern 
culture. 

From Homer, we learn that respect for parents, silence 
in the presence of elders, modesty, and chastity were 
characteristics in the training of the young. Obedience 
in youth was inculcated that the citizen might the better 
know how to command. The father taught his son the 
use of arms, how to properly exercise his body, and the 



12 OUTLINES OF THE 

worship of the gods ; the mother taught her daughter 
prudence and virtue. The high ideals held up to the 
admiration of the young Grecian student had much to 
do in forming in him high aspirations and noble im- 
pulses. A noble view was taken of the state. Educa- 
tion was a favorite topic of legislative discussion and 
many wise laws were passed regarding it. The interest 
of the state seems to have been paramount ; the interest 
of the individual of a secondary nature. 

There were several schools of philosophy in Greece 
that had a great influence upon the destinies of her people 
and upon those of other nations where these schools were 
transferred. Chief among these schools were the Epi- 
cureans, founded by Epicurus about 300 B. C., and the 
Stoics, founded by Zeno at about the same time. Epi- 
curus taught "a happy life, a quiet and cheerful mind, 
and an undisturbed enjoyment of pleasure as the highest 
attainable good. — Intellectual pleasures were valued by 
him more highly than sensual ones, and friendship, tran- 
quility, patience and suffering unavoidable pain." Epi- 
curus and his immediate followers led pure lives, but his 
doctrine in the hands of the Romans led to licentious- 
ness and is considered by some to be one of the causes of 
the downfall of their empire. The Stoics laid great stress 
upon "the control of passions and emotions, upon the 
subordination of the body to the mind, upon refraining 
from sensual pleasures and upon every kind of abstinence 
and self-denial. Even life itself should be relinquished, 
if it hindered the exercise of conscience. Stoicism was 
the symbol of austere morality." 

With the downfall of Greece, Greek culture was trans- 
ferred to Alexandria, Egypt. Here Neoplatonism, the ef- 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 13 

fort ''to harmonize oriental theology with Greek dialec- 
tics," flourished. Here was formed the first school for 
the study of Christian theology. 

The new Testament and the early literature of the 
church were written in Greek. This will always give the 
study of Greek a place in our schools. 

About 300 A.D., Constantine made Constantinople the 
capital of the Roman empire, where Greek literature pre- 
vailed. Theodosius, a little later divided the empire into 
two parts. The Eastern empire was largely Greek in 
civilization. It had a miserable existence until it was 
captured by the Turks. The Turks were opposed to the 
Greek religion. Most of the Greek scholars had to 
leave for other countries. The opposition of the Turks 
to Greek learning continued down to the eighteenth cen- 
tury, when the Turks felt that their authority was firmly 
established. 



ATHENS. 



The Athenian education has been called aesthetic. 
Children were taught to read and swim. The state saw 
that the children attended the gymnasium while the pri- 
vate individual organized schools for music and gram- 
mar. Later Athens required a literary training The 
Athenian child was kept in charge of a nurse until he 
was six or seven, when he was put in charge of a peda- 
gogue, who was usually a slave, and who was more an 
attendant than a teacher. If the child was not kept in 
school by his parents, he was not compelled to support 
them in their old age. The elementary schools had two 
teachers — the grammatist who taught the child reading 
and writing, and the critic, who explained the poets to 



14 OUTLINES OF THE 

him and and heard him recite from them. He attended 
successively the school for grammar, the palestra(a gym- 
nastic school), and the school for music. This took 
eighteen years. The wax tablet and the stylus were the 
writing materials. The Iliad and the Odyssey were 
among the first books used. Passages from these were 
committed. 

At fourteen the poor children learned a trade and the 
wealthy took up grammar, music, rhetoric, poetry, 
mathematics and philosophy. In the elementary gymnas- 
tic schools, running, jumping,wrestling and similar sports 
were taught. Mental culture was sought after with this 
training. Later the state gymnasia gave this physical 
exercise a more manly character. By means of this 
training, the Athenians sought after beauty of bod 
while the Spartans sought after strength and endurance. 

The education of any Grecian that lacked music was 
regarded defective. The laws of Greece were set to 
music. The Grecians argued that music inspired the 
soul and stoothed the passions. It softened the manners 
of those men who otherwise would have been fierce 
through their physical training. 

Discipline was severe. Aristophanes says, "The boys 
came out of each street with bare heads and feet, and, re- 
gardless of rain or snow, went together in the most 
perfect order towards the school of music. They were 
seated quietly and modestly. They were not permitted 
to cross their legs. ''' "^ '^ If some one took a 
notion to sing with soft and studied inflections, he was 
severely flogged." 

At eighteen the youth entered the military system ot 
the state. Two years later he became a voter and re- 
ceived the privileges of a citizen. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 15 

The moral standard of the Greeks was not high. The 
Greek could not rise above his gods. These were deified 
beings, beautiful in body, but filled with base passions. 
The moral and useful were of more significance than was 
the beautiful. The slaves were not educated and the 
women were in servile subordination. ''Patriotism and 
courage, respect for religious rites of the city, modesty 
and urbanity of marmeT^ a constant regard for outward 
propriety, were carefully inculcated. The refined taste 
of the Athenian abolished grossness from his vices." 



SPARTA. 



The Spartan education is known as martial education 
and was devised by Lycurgus, the law-giver of Sparta, 
it fostered a contempt for life and worldly goods, but 
the habit of prompt obedience to all the demands of the 
state. It abated pride and luxury, and led to simplicity 
of living. The interests of the state were regarded su- 
perior to those of the individual, therefore the child was 
regarded as the property of the state. Unhealthy chil- 
dren were allowed to be killed. 

Up to the seventh year the mother used all known 
resources to invigorate her child's body. After this they 
were taken from their homes and placed under the most 
severe discipline. Their food was coarse; their clothing 
scanty ; and their bed was made of rusTies. Their bodies 
were bathed on certain days of the year only and there- 
fore became hard and dry. Thieving was permitted. 
The thief became very adroit in concealing his theft. He 
was severely whipped if detected. Reading and writing 
were taught, but not so thoroughly as in Athens. The 



16 OUTLINES OF THE 

youth associated with the old, from whom they obtained 
lessons of practical wisdom. Through the same source, 
they learned about state affairs, how to behave mannerly 
and to acquire a dignified bearing. Drunkenness was 
little known in Sparta. The Spartan youth was temper- 
ate in habit, respectful to his elders, and obedient to 
parents. He revered past usages, wS^^^red to cold and 
hunger, and ready to die for his country. The mother 
was content if her son died facing the enemy. 
Spartan women received training in the gymnasmm, 
and became noted for their strength and beauty. 

The Spartan education ''aimed \t training men who 
were to live in the midst of difficult/^and danger, and 
could be safe themselves only while the^^held rule over 
others. The citizen was to be equally fittea to command 
and to obey. The Spartan system attained, 'C^'ithin its 
own sphere, to a perfection which it is impossible not to" 
admire." 



COMPARISON OF ATHENIAN AND SPARTAN EDUCATION. 

"At Athens, while not neglecting the body, the chief 
preoccupation is the training of the mind ; intellectual 
culture is pushed to an extreme, even to over refinement ; 
there is such a taste for fine speaking that it develops 
an abuse of language and reasoning which merits the I 
disreputable name of sophistry. At Sparta, the mind is 
sacrificed to body ; physical strength and military skill 
are the qualities most desired; the sole care is the train- j 
ing of athletes and soldiers. Sobriety and courage are 
the results of this one-sided education, but so are ignor- 
ance and brutality." 

At Sparta, "the education was cruel, with but a trace 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 17 

of the intellectual. Mercy, tenderness, sympathy, the 
poetry of life, were, if known, despised. * * =k ^ 
The Athenian education emphasized the duty of every 
citizen to the state — but only that the state might better 
enable those citizens to enjoy prosperity and the fruits of 
an honorable peace. Athens could fight bravely, but she 
did not, like Sparta, crave for war. Strength she sought, 
but with grace and above all wisdom. Woman was 
wife, as well as mother, and the family was the guardian 
of the child." 



EFFECT OF GREEK EDUCATION ON MODERN EDUCATION. 

The effect of Greek education on modern education is 
variously estimated by students of history. It is certain 
that modern education owes much to the ancient Greeks. 
We have received from them, grammar, rhetoric, logic, 
ethics, economics, geometry, drawing, mechanics and 
the fine arts. They have contributed to our notion of 
beauty, culture, harmony and grace. 



CHAPTER III. 



GRECIAN EDUCATION 



SOCRATES. (469-399 B. C.) 

Socrates' father was a sculptor. Socrates was a man 
inferior in personal appearance and not graceful in bear- 
ing, but full of noble thoughts and aspirations. He was 
strong and courageous. He left no writings, but his mode 
of teaching, the Socratic, has been retained to the pres- 
ent time. 

He taught in the streets of Athens and in other public 
places. He is the author of the developing method. By 
a series of questions, he showed his pupils the soundness 
or unsoundness of their opinions and excited in them 
the utmost mental activity. Truth was always the object 
of his inquiries. 

The Sophists, who lived at his time, were the direct 
product of the Athenian education. They were clever 
in argument, but had little reverence for religion. They 
prided themselves upon being able to argue ingeniously 
in favor of whatever they wished. Socrates believed in 
one Supreme God. It was for him to show the Sophists 
the evils of their ways. For this he lost his life. 

When an error was made in reply to a question, 
Socrates oftentimes seemed to accept it as a truth, but by 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 19 

skilfully questioning his student, he would show the 
error in its true light. This is known as Socratic irony. 
Tlie Socratic method, called maieutics, is the art of giving 
birth to ideas. 

vSocrates' maxim was, "Know thyself." He looked 
upon self knowledge as the only true sense of wisdom. 
He believed that if man would learn the truth, he 
would be impelled to thought and action. To assist 
men after true wisdom was the purpose of his teaching. 

The process of his method is of great educational value. 
He has shown us how to apply it. He always proceeded 
from the known to the unknown ; from the easy to the 
difficult. He explained by way of comparison or an- 
alogy. The immediate product of his method is clear- 
ness of conception. The result of his teaching led to a 
reconstruction of fundamental ideas in many departments 
of inquiry. Sophistry was dissipated by his questioning. 

He ''believed teaching to be a divine calling. The 
teacher should be an adept in the art of teaching. This 
was, in his opinion, of greater worth than material 
knowledge. He should be a man of mature age and ^ 
intellectual force, whose sympathy for his pupils is deep 
and powerTul an^ will never forsake them. He should 
understand the art of developing ideas from within the 
mind of the pupil, by arousing his mind to self activity 
through skilful questioning." 

Xenophon says of him : "He was so pious that he 
did nothing without the advice of the gods ; so just that 
he never in the least injured anyone ; so fully master of 
himself that he never chose the pleasant instead of the 
good; so discriminating that, he never failed to dis- 
tinguish the better from the worse." 



20 OUTLINES OF THE 

But this pure man was not understood by the cor- 
rupted populace of Athens and he was accused of 
corrupting the Athenian youth and decrying the gods 
recognized by the state. He was condemned to death 
and perished in the seventy-first year of his age. 



PLATO. (429-347 B. C.) 

Plato claims among his ancestors Codrus and Solon, 
the law-giver of Athens. There is a fable that bees 
settled on his lips in infancy. He was a great traveler 
and observer. His writings show that he was familiar 
with the noted Greek writings of his day. He was one 
of Socrates' most distinguished pupils. He was melan- 
choly and thoughtful. He rarely smiled and never 
laughed. He is the first to subject education to a 
scientific examination. 

After studying in Syracuse and elsewhere, he re- 
turned to Athens where he established a school of 
philosophy, called the Academy. The school was 
established in a small garden, adorned with statues, 
temples, surrounded with beautiful trees, and intersected 
by a winding stream. Here he promulgated his theories 
of idealism. Ideas, according to him, are the eternal 
types, constituting the essence of things. ''These ideas 
are the substance of all knowledge, and the human 
intellect attains to the knowledge of them by dialectics, 
that is, systematic examination and argument, by which 
the non-essential are distinguished from the essential ele- 
ments." The school of Plato was a university training; 
it made its students philosophers, when it would have 
been better for the state to have introduced men to public 



III 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 



and practical life. His training did much for science ; 
it did a great service for geometry especially. 

Republic is the title of his chief work on education. In 
this he argues that "the state is but the citizen writ large." 
Education should be under the control of the state. Chil- 
dren should be kept with their parents until they are 
seven, and be taught morality by myths. He considers 
honor to parents, love of fellow -citizens, self-control, 
truthfulness and courage to be cardinal virtues, and the 
stability of the state to depend upon a correct knowledge 
of music. He advocates athletics and dialectics. At 
twenty men are to be selected for their employments. 
For the following ten years, they are to study science, as 
applied to war; then for the following five, they are to 
study dialectics. Dialectics, according to Plato, enables 
one to "fight his way as it were, through all objections, 
studying to disprove them, not by rules of opinion, but 
by those real existence >k * * without making 
one false step in his train of thought." This study is to 
be followed by fifteen years of public service. Plato says, 
^'Education is nurture. It can determine whether a 
nature shall be wild and malevolent or rich with benefits 
to mankind. It includes not merely instruction or train- 
ing, but all the influences that are brought to bear on the 
soul. The soul is made up of three parts: i, the appe- 
tite, which is wild but capable of being tamed ; 2, the 
spirit, the element of courage ; 3, the philosophic element, 
the source of gentleness, of love, of culture." In the 
elaborate system of education, Plato omits the physical 
and natural sciences, because, "in his mystic idealism, 
things of sense are delusive and unreal images, and so 
did not appear to him worthy of arresting the attention 
of the mind." 



23 OUTLINES OF THE 

His Laws was the work of his mature years. It 
quaHfies many of the propositions found in the Repubhc. 
It is far more practical and less radical than his former 
work. In it, he says, "A good education is that which 
gives to the body and to the soul all the beauty and all 
the perfection of which they are capable '^ '^ * 
A free mind ought to learn nothing as a slave. The 
lesson that is made to enter the mind by force will not 
remain there. Then use no violence toward children ; 
the rather, cause them to learn while playing. * ^ * 
I am persuaded that the inclination to humor the likings 
of children is the surest of all ways to spoil them. We 
should not make too much haste in our search after what 
is pleasurable, especially as we shall never be wholly ex- 
empt from what is painful." Plato in all his works seems 
to have made a "constant search for a higher morality." 



ARISTOTLE. (429-347 B. C.) 

Aristotle was Plato's most famous pupil and the teacher 
of Alexander the Great. He is known as "the Alexander 
of the intellectual world." Plato said of him that he was 
*'the intellect of his school." He reduced geometry to 
a science, originated the study of natural history and in- 
vented logic. 

The philosophy of Aristotle is more practical than 
Plato's. Aristotle's investigations were the result of 
painstaking research ; they were not theoretical. He 
knew the pleasures of family association and had trained 
his own children. These experiences made him a com- 
petent educator. Plato was an idealist ; Aristotle was a 
realist, and the father of experimental science. His 



HISTOEY OF EDUCATION. 2S 

method of teaching was analytic. His philosophy was 
based on the principle that all knowledge is founded on 
the observation of facts. Pedagogy must be based on 
principles derived from the knowledge of men. Happi- 
ness is the goal of activity and is acquired by performing 
moral action. The state should establish the happiness 
of families and communities. The same education does 
not produce the same effect in all individuals, because 
character is dependent upon nature, habit and instruc- 
tion. 

At fifty he founded in Athens the Lyceum. He walk- 
ed with his pupils through the shady gl-ove, where the 
school was held, while teaching ; this has given the name 
peripatetic to his school of philosophy. He gave 
lectures mornings and afternoons. Those of the after- 
noons were less abstruse than those of the morning. 
"His principal object is to examine truth under all her 
aspects, never to stop beyond the probable and to bring 
his philosophical, system in unison with the general 
opinion of men as suggested by common sense, observa- 
tion and experience." 

He believed in public education, but that parents 
should not relinquish their care over their children as the 
Spartans did. He argues that courses of discipline 
should bring out in their proper relation the physical, 
the moral and the intellectual parts of the child. Among 
the elements of instruction, he includes grammar, gym- 
nastics, music and drawing. 

His principal work is Politics. This contains theory 
of instruction, and is not so valuable to a student of ped- 
agogy as are his lectures in the Lyceum. In it he says 
that a good education has four branches — gymnastics, 
music, grammar and the art of designs. 



24 OUTLINES OF THE 

The pedagogy of Aristotle was for the few. His sys- 
tem of education was for the free-born. Slaves and women 
were practically excluded from it. The studies that he 
recommended were of the intellectual type ; they were 
not utilitarian. The Greek systems of education were 
not adapted to a Christian civilization. 

"Plato attaches great importance to mathematics, be- 
cause it leads from the concrete to the abstract, from the 
real to the ideal. Aristotle assigns a subordinate place 
to it because it has no bearing upon the ethical nature 
of man. Plato opposes poets and artists, whom Aristotle 
commends ; Plato sought religion in ceremonies 
Aristotle found it in the heart of man." 

"Aristotle is the connecting link between Greek 
civilization and the European civilization of later 
periods ; through him and because of him Greek civiliza- 
tion expanded into European civilization, and into the 
cosmopolitan civilization of our days — the civilization 
that asks not after nationality, or birth, or station or sex, 
but that would unite all human beings in the great 
brother- and sisterhood of stron-g individuals, whose 
equal privilege is happiness." 



XBNOPHON. (444-354 B. C.) 

Xenophon was one of the most illustrious scholars of 
Socrates. He is chiefly noted for writing Economics, 
Cyropoedia and Anabasis. The Economics was written 
under the influence of his famous teacher, and gives a 
scheme for the education of woman. Before Xenophon's 
time, the Athenian woman's virtues were purely nega- 
tive. He "assigns to her husband the duty of training her 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION". 25 

mind and of teaching her the positive duties of family 
life, — order, economy, kindness to slaves, and tender 
care of children." In the Cyropoedia, he describes the 
Persian education and a plan of an education uniform 
and military. He cites incidents in the life of Cyrus to 
show the justice of Persian education. But it is easy to 
show that the Persian education was one-sided. The in- 
tellectual part of man was not developed ; the physical 
and the moral were, because their development was useful 
in war and in the administration of justice. The Anaba- 
sis contains a true account of the Persian government at 
that time. It had a great influence upon Alexander the 
Great. It was the first work of its kind in Greece. 



EUCLID. 

Probably Euclid lived during the reign of Ptolemy I. 
(323-285 B. C.) He undoubtedly founded the mathemati- 
cal school of Alexandria. But little is known of his life. 
The man must be studied through his written works. 
The greatest of these is his Elements of Geometry, in 
thirteen books, known as Euclid. The extent of his 
treatise would indicate that he spoke correctly when he 
said "There is no royal road to geometry." For an 
analysis of the Euclid, the student is referred to the 
Encyclopedia Britannica. His Elements of Geometry 
is the most ancient system that is extant, and has been 
considered standard for 2,000 years. 



STRABO. (54 ? B. C. — 24 ? A. D.) 

Strabo was born at Amasia in Pontus. He received a 
good education in the Greek poets. He studied at 



26 OUTLINES OF THE 

Athens, Rome and Alexandria. His travels extended to 
many cities and through many countries. 

The first attempt, so far as known, to gather all attain- 
able geographical knowledge in a general treatise on 
Geography was made by Strabo. His Geography, in 
seventeen books, was intended to be a sequel to his his- 
torical materials, obtained through his extended travels. 
The work was intended for the statesman rather than the 
student. It gives valuable information on ethnology, 
trade and metallurgy. 



PTOLEMY. (SECOND CENTURY A. D.) 

Ptolemy was a native of Egypt, but the date and place 
of birth and the date of his death are uncertain or un- 
known. He is noted as a mathematician, astronomer 
and geographer. The Almagest contains his mathema- 
tical researches and greatly influenced the students of 
astronomy. One of the results of his astronomical in- 
vestigations is the famous Ptolemaic system of planetary 
motion. Through his investigations in trigonometry, 
astronomy attained its final general construction. His 
work on Geography was the first to place the subject on 
a scientific basis. 



PYTHAGORAS. (580 B. • C — ). 

Pythagoras was born on Samos, but was allied in 
spirit to the Spartans. He left no written records, hence 
many mythical stories are told about him. His travels 
in Egypt greatly influenced his teaching. He founded a 
famous school at Crotona, in southern Italv. The course 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 2T 

was divided into two parts. It was during the second 
part that the student came into close relations with the 
great master. The students were taught mathematics, 
music, medicine, physics, geography, and metaphysics. 
He was especially fond of mathematics and discovered 
that the square of the hypothenuse of a right triangle is 
equivalent to the squares of its two legs. His instruction 
was dogmatic. Assertions made by Pythagoras were re- 
garded true because he made them. His system was 
"strict in morals, severe in discipline, partial to physical 
training, authoritative in method, and aristocratic in 
tendency." It w^as on account of its aristocratic tenden- 
cies that the Crotona school was attacked by a mob and 
burned. Pythagoras was not heard of after this. 

His method of instruction showed Spartan influence, 
in strictness in morals, in the importance given to 
gymnastics, in its positive methods, in the scanty diet to 
which he subjected his pupils, and in its aristocratic 
tendencies. 

The cardinal principle of his system was metempsycho- 
sis, or the transmigration of the soul. He tried to intro- 
duce into the human soul the harmony which he ob- 
served in the universe. "Self-knowledge he regarded as 
the indispensable condition for self-improvement — as the 
basis of all culture, the highest aim of which is to obtain 
a full understanding of the essence and relations of the 
objects around us, and to live in harmony with them. 
Music was in itself one of the most important instruments 
of this culture, embodying and typifying the harmony of 
the universe, as well as aiding the soul in its efforts to 
bring itself into the same harmony." It may be seen that 
harmony was the chief thing sought after in his system of 
education. 



28 OUTLINES OF THE 

He taught slowly what he attempted to teach ; his pu- 
pils therefore assimilated what they were instructed in. 
But he did not appreciate the inaccuracies of the scienti- 
fic statements of his time and taught many hypotheses as 
truths. His students became arrogant and prided them- 
selves as being superior to other persons. This aroused 
the hatred of these persons, and was a cause of the over- 
throw of the school at Crotona. 



CHAPTER IV. 



ROMAN EDUCATION. 



In the Roman education the family occupied the high- 
est place. The Roman mother had the exclusive care 
of her child during its early years. After slavery had 
spread over the empire, the mother gave way to the cor- 
rupt influences of that system and placed her child into 
the hands of nurses. Then it was that only the poorest 
mothers took care of their children. In the palmiest 
days of Rome, the Roman matron attended to the physi- 
cal wants of her children, to their moral sentiments, their 
language, and their religious feelings. The father was 
the master of the family and could even take the life of 
his own child. He supplemented the labors of the mother 
in the matter of instruction. He saw that his boys were 
familiar with the gods of the family and of the state, with 
the laws of the government, with military and civil in- 
struction and that they were prepared for a trade. The 
Romans had no idea of education by the state ; the chil- 
dren were taught at home. 

At seven the child was taught the elements of reading 
and writing by the literator. Reading was taught by ex- 
plaining the power of the letters in combination before 
their individual characteristics, i. C;, by the syllabic 
method. Writing was taught by the pupil tracing with 
a stylus letters inscribed on a waxen tablet. Words were 
then pronounced with their proper accent. Poets were 



•30 OUTLINES OF THE 

read and selections memorized. Reckoning followed. 
The fingers and joints of the hand were used for this 
purpose. At twelve the child was placed in the hands of 
the literatus for more advanced work. Greek was added 
to Latin. Morality was taught through explanations of 
the poets. History, especially that relating to the laws 
of the land, was carefully studied. Oratory received early 
attention. At fifteen, the youth assumed the dress of 
manhood and chose his profession.^ ^he Roman mother 
had a strong influence over her children. She stimulated 
her sons to great effort in war and in the forum. The 
Roman boy sat at the table with his father and listened, 
in silence, to the recital of what his ancestors had done 
for his country, and often accompanied him to the Senate 
to learn how to act on public occasions. The rod was 
not spared. The ability to read and write was a rare ac- 
complishment. The children of the rich were instructed, 
but those of the poor could not afford an education. The 
early history of Rome was transmitted by oral instruc- 
tion, for writing was but little practiced before the Greeks 
were conquered. 



THE GRECIAN AND THE ROMAN EDUCATION COMPARED. 

The Grecian education produced men "beautiful, 
active, clever, receptive, emotional, quick to feel and 
show his feeling, to argue, to refine ; greedy of the pleas- 
ures of the world . .'•■'. . * . . "^ . . inquiring into every secret : 
strongly attached to the things of this life, but elevated 
by an unabated striving after the highest ideal; setting 
no value but on faultless abstractions, and seeing reality 
only in heaven, on earth mere shadows." The Roman 
education produced men, ''practical, energetic, eloquent. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 31 

tinged but not imbued with philosophy, trained to spare 
neither himself nor others ; reading and thinking only 
with an apology ; best engaged in defending a political 
principle * * * jj^ leading armies through unex- 
plored deserts, establishing roads, fortresses, settlements, 
as the result of conquest, or in ordering and superintend- 
ing the slow, certain and utter annihilation of some 
enemy of Rome." "In Greece a love for the aesthetic 
predominated, the Greek taking a peculiar delight in the 
beautiful ; but, with the Roman, the practical prevailed, 
and the beautiful was simply an aesthetic amusement. 
He was harder, coarser, delighting more in power and 
less in beauty, more in facts and less in speculation, more 
in the real and less- in the ideal." 



CHAPTER V. 



ROMAN EDUCATORS. 



QUINTILIAN. (35-95 A. D.) 

Quintilian, "professor of eloquence," was born in 
Spain, but spent his life in Rome. He won distinction 
at the bar, but early turned his attention to teaching. He 
was the first teacher in Rome to receive a salary from the 
state. During his experience of twenty, years as a teacher 
in Rome, he numbered among his pupils some of the 
foremost men of that city. In his Institutes of Oratory, 
he gives a treatise on education as well as one on rhetoric. 

Intellectual training, according to Quintilian, should 
begin before the child is seven. It should not be formal, 
but should be given in the form of plays to develop his 
intellect. Nurses and mothers should be careful to give 
the child correct impressions, ''Wool, once colored, 
never regains its primitive whiteness." All children, in 
normal condition, are teachable. If the promise of youth 
is not fulfilled, it is attributable to defective education. 
He used ivory letters to give children the idea of the 
shape of letters before they were taught their names. He 
taught everything that he attempted to teach thoroughly, 
before going to something else. He advocated that in- 
struction should not be reserved until the sixth or 



HISTOEY OF EDUCATION. • 33 

seventh year, for memory is tenacious in childhood and 
it is reasonable to make use of it then. Greek should 
be taught before Latin, since the Roman child would 
naturally acquire Latin. The study of Latin should not 
be too long deferred, lest a pure pronunciation be lost. 

Public education had a zealous and intelligent advocate 
in Quintilian. The pupil does not receive more care 
from a single teacher. The best teachers, v^ith all that 
implies, vv^ill be found in the large schools. Vices are 
not taught children in school, but the children bring 
them there. Common sense cannot be effectively 
taught in a private school. The public school brings its 
pupils in contact v^ith each other. Ambition is excited 
by seeing the advancement made by associates. Quin- 
tilian says, "We form the palate of our children before we 
form their pronunciation. They grow up in the sedan 
chairs ; if they touch the ground, they hang by the 
hands of attendants supporting them on each side. We 
are delighted if they utter anything immodest. * * * 
Need we be astonished at their behavior? We have 
taught them." He argues that the public school tends 
to rectify this condition. 

It was Quintilian's plan to make lawyers and states- 
men. The public school was necessary to accomplish 
this. The orator, who must be active in public affairs, 
must accustom himself from boyhood to the society and 
activity of man. His Institutes of Oratory gives in de- 
tail the essentials necessary to an orator. He must be a 
good man, must be well versed in logic, ethics, and 
physics, and so forth. 

Corporal punishment should not be allowed, because 
it is servile and degrading ; after a time it loses its effect, 
and if steady work be given, there will be no occasion 
for it. 



34 OUTLINES OF THE 



PLUTARCH. (50 to 138 A. D.) 



Plutarch was born in Chaeronea, but early went to 
Rome. He did not attach himself to any school of 
Philosophy, but was an independent thinker. He was 
conversant with history and physics. He applied his 
learning to the casualties of human existence. He held 
that the soul is imperishable. He is particularly famous 
for his "Forty-six Parallel Lives." The author sets a 
Greek warrior, statesman, orator, or legislator side by 
side with noted Romans celebrated for the same qualities. 
Nearly all the lives are in pairs, but the work concludes 
with a few single biographies. His treatment is not al- 
ways impartial ; he sympathizes too much with the Spar- 
tan character to be free from impartiality. Plutarch 
says in his "Opera Moralia," "Kindness and advice better 
than blows ; over-pressure in learning is to be avoided ; 
gradual advance in virtue is like steady sailing over a 
wide sea, and can only be measured by the time taken 
and the force applied." 

In his treatise On the Education of Children, he says 
that the aim of education is the virtuous man, that edu- 
cation depends on natural gifts, training, and exercise, 
and that teachers of boys should have experience and 
have a blameless character. Gymnastic exercise is 
necessary to a good education ; scolding is needless and 
self-control is to be learned. 

Plutarch writes only in behalf of the free-born. He 
believes that the state should not usurp the function of 
the family in the training of children. Contrary to Quin- 
tilian, he believes that the state does not exercise abso- 
lute sovereignty in society. He recommends an education 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 35 

that is domestic. That this kind of training may be 
perfected, he exalts the condition of woman, who should 
instruct her offspring. Plutarch gave che world the 
first formal treatise on the education of children. 



PLINY. (23-79 A. D.) 

Pliny, the naturalist, was a great student, and a tem- 
perate and clear thinker. No Roman gained more re- 
nown as an investigator of the phenomena of nature 
than he. He had a great influence on the nomenclature 
and the popular ideas about common objects. His 
diligence was proverbial. While riding or being carried 
in a litter, he continued his studies. He had a slave read 
to him while at his meals. His zeal for investigation 
cost him his life. He ventured too near Vesuvius at 
the destruction of Pompeii to get a good view of the 
mountain and was suffocated by the sulphurous vapors. 

His greatest work is Natural History, in thirty-seven, 
volumes. It is well preserved to-day. It contains facts 
on botany, zoology, astronomy, the arts, etc. It was the 
Roman Encyclopaedia. The work is largely a compila- 
tion. Pantheistic ideas run through it. With all its 
faults it is an astounding movement of industry. 



VARRO. (116-26 B. C.) 

Varro, "the most learned man in Rome," was the first 
Roman beyond the Alps to win eminence in literature. 
He lived in the turbulent times of Marius and Sulla and 
had all of his immense wealth confiscated. He sought 
relief from these harassing circumstances in literature. 
He began the study of Greek at thirty-five. Caesar made 



36 OUTLINES OF THE 

him librarian. He is said to have written 620 books on 
74 different topics. He wrote on grammar, history, 
rhetoric, and geometry. These were instrumental in the 
education of several generations. His most valuable 
work was on agriculture, a hand-book for the Italian 
farmer. His writings show spirit and vigor. 



SENECA. (2 B. C. ?-65 A. D.) 

Seneca was born at Cordova, Spain, but early went to 
Rome, where he spent his life. After traveling in Greece 
and Egypt, he returned to Rome and practiced law. 
During his banishment for eight years to Corsica, he 
studied philosophy. He expressed a rational contempt 
for the instruction imparted to him in his youth. He 
became the tutor to Nero. He could not control the 
depravity of that profligate emperor. He was con- 
demned to death in 65 A. D. 

His Letters to Lucilius contains some pedagogical pre- 
cepts. He "criticises confused and ill-directed reading 
that does not enrich the understanding and recommends 
the profound study of a single book." He says, "The 
best means for giving clearness to one's own ideas is to 
communicate them to others ; the best way of being- 
taught is to teach ; the end is attained sooner by example 
than by precept." 

Seeing the corruption of his own age, Seneca advocat- 
ed the education of growth in pure morals, self-control 
and truthfulness, and that God can inspire every man, 
though by nature corrupt, with upright and pure 
thoughts. He saw that a teacher must be versatile. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 37 

since children possess a variety of individualities. Tie 
advocated practical and useful studies. ''Non scholae, 

sed vitae discimus." 



ST. JEROME. (330 ? — 420 A.D.) 

St. Jerome was born at Stridon. His parents were 
Christians and wealthy. He completed his education at 
Rome. In the Roman schools of philosophy he listened 
to lectures on Plato and other Greek philosophers. His 
Sundays were spent in the catacombs deciphering in- 
scriptions on the graves of the martyrs. He was a man 
of strong opinions and sacrificed friends for them. Dur- 
ing a severe illness he became converted to Christianity, 
and his conversion was so pronounced that he resolved 
to renounce whatever kept him from God. He loved fo 
study the literature of pagan Rome. In his dreams. God 
reproached him with caring more to be a Ciceronian than 
a Christian. He taught the beauties of monastic life, and 
probably the first to teach physical asceticism ; that is, 
the body is an enemy that must be subdued by abstinence 
and by mortifications of the flesh. Paula a wealthy 
Roman lady, impressed with his teaching, built four 
monasteries, three for nuns and one for monks, over one 
of which she placed Jerome. 

His translation of the Scriptures in Latin is known as 
the vulgate. and is the one used in the Roman Catholic 
church to-day. 

His letters on the education of girls forms the most 
valuable educational document written during the fourth 
century. 



OUTLINES OF THE 



ST. AUGUSTINE. (354-430 A. D.) 



St. Augustine was born in Numidia and educated at 
Carthage. His father was a pagan ; his mother a zeal- 
ous Christian. He was well educated in the best schools 
of Carthage and elsewhere. The fascination of the Car- 
thaginian theatres drew him from Christianity, but he 
never forgot the pious teaching of his mother. He chang- 
ed from one religious faith to another until he came under 
the influence of St. Ambrose, who, with the entreaties of 
his mother, converted him to the Christian faith. He 
became the most influential writer and advocate of that 
doctrine that the world had had. 

His works form a library. The most noted 
of these are his Confessions and his City of God, one of 
them.ost remiarkable productions of all Christian writings. 
His Confessions, as the title indicates, narrates the strug- 
gles in his soul which resulted in his conversion. The City 
of God answers the charge of the pagans that Christianity 
was the cause of the calamities which befell Rome. He 
shows in the Confessions the influence of maternal edu- 
cation upon the life of man, and the effect of the intellec- 
tual aspirations of man and his moral nature. He op- 
posed the reading by the young of the^impious fables of 
poets, the published lies of the rhetoricians, and the ver- 
bose subtleties of the philosophers." The use of pagan 
classics in Christian schools is questioned to-day. He 
advocated special training for candidates for the priest- 
hood. He was the father of Christian catechetics. 



r 



CHAPTER VI. 

EFFECT OF CHRISTIANITY ON EDUCATION. 

Pagan education was one-sided ; it did not give a com- 
plete development to man's character. The advent of 
Christ was destined to change character. Christianity 
teaches the brotherhood of mankind, and that God is no 
respecter of persons. It seeks to overthrow the injus- 
tice of society. It gives woman an honorable position 
by the side of man. "Christianity taught that man no 
longer belonged to society except in part; that he was 
under allegiance to it by his body and his material in- 
terests ; that being subject to a tyrant, he must submit; 
he ought to give his life for it ; but that in respect of his 
soul, he was free, and owed allegiance only to God." 
Thus, Christianity does away the distinctions of class and 
caste and the notion that the state is superior to the in- 
dividual. 

Christian education up to the Reformation met with 
strong opposition. Its efficiency was crippled by being 
brought in contact with existing customs and by being 
united with the State. A corrupt priesthood tainted it 
with tyranny. But during those years of tyranny and 
superstition, the relics of ancient literature were pre- 
served in the monasteries, and popular education had a 
beginning. 

Though there was self-sacrificing devotion manifested 
during those years, educational training was incomplete 
among primitive Christians. It subordinated the in- 



40 OUTLINES OF THE 

tellectual and even the physical to the moral and religious 
elements of our nature. 

There was a poverty of educational thought during the 
first centuries. The barbarous people among whom the 
early Christians worked could not rise to a high mental 
culture. These centuries were fuU of conquest and wars 
v/hich left but little opportunity for educational study. 
The early Christians sought to annihilate existing be- 
liefs ; they could not suddenly expect to receive the sym- 
pathy of those whom they endeavored to instruct in an 
opposing faith. 

At the close of the second century, the regenerating 
influence of Christianity began to show itself upon the 
poor and lowly. "The lovely character of Christian 
women was viewed with amazement by their heathen 
neighbors." The first Christian school of high grade 
was located at Alexandria in i8i A. D.. Kingsley's 
"Hypatia" shows the condition of this period quite 
faithfully. 

During the fourth and fifth centuries, the power of 
Rome tried to crush out the growing influence of Chris- 
tian teaching. The high morality of the persecuted won, 
however, the respect of the pagan writers. The Em- 
peror Constantine became converted to the new faith. 
This support of the empire produced for it rapid growth. 
But the barbarian invasions of the next two centuries 
checked its spreading influence. The principal teaching 
was the doctrines of the church. The learning of the 
preceding centuries was in the Latin language and 
it had so much paganism in it that the church 
did not teach it, since the mind was regarded of less 
value than the soul. Alcuin, St. Augustine and 
many other writers of the time were convinced that 



UISTORY OF EDUCATION. 41 

"Christianity was alien to Roman culture." Symonds 
says, "The adoption of intellectual interest in tlieological 
questions, contributed to destroy what remained of sound 
scholarship in the last years of the empire." 

Christianity during the fifteenth century desired to win 
people to a better life. The Italian renaissance of this 
time desired "to acquire and to transmit to Europe a 
knowledge of the classics." Symonds again says, "The 
culture of the classics had to be reappropriated before 
the movement of the modern mind could begin. This 
task was effected by long and toilsome study, by the ac- 
cumulation of manuscripts, by the acquisition of dead 
languages, by the solitary labors of grammarians, by the 
lectures of itinerant professors, by the scribe, by the 
printing-press, by the self-devotion of magnificent Italy 
to erudition." 



CHAPTER VII. 



EDUCATION DURING MIDDLE AGES. 

A peculiar tendency of the education of the Church 
during the middle ages was asceticism, or a disdain of 
this life in the interest of the life to come. Since the 
people thought that the body was the seat of sin, it was 
restrained and often scourged that the soul might attain 
thereby a greater perfection. The hermits, who withdrew 
from society, and the monks, who lived in poverty and 
under strict physical disipline, were two classes of 
ascetics. 

Worldly interests \yere largely ignored. The priests 
exercised great power. They excluded the pagan liter- 
ature of Greece and Rome from Christian schools. 
Learning languished. Many of the priests could neither 
read nor write. Ignorance among men of rank was 
common. Religion was the chief topic of discussion and 
thought. Education was fettered for ages. The causes 
of this state of intellectual darkness up to the revival of 
learning were, many Christians thought ignorance fav- 
ored holiness, the barbaric tribes of the North overran 
Italy and Greece, introducing their rude manners, the 
social condition of the people was deplorable, and there 
was a lack of national languages,books and schools. 

But the monastic orders of the Benedictines, the Fran- 
ciscans, and the Dominicans exerted a marked influence 
for good during these ages. The monasteries of these 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 43 

orders became "asylums for the oppressed ; fortresses 
against violence ; missionary stations for the conversion 
of heathen communities ; repositories of learning, homes 
for the arts and sciences. They preserved and trans- 
mitted to later ages much of the learning of antiquity/' 

The education of the middle ages belongs largely to 
the age of the Schoolmen. The course of instruction 
embraced the seven liberal arts, so-called. These were 
divided into two classes called the trivium, which in- 
cluded Latin grammar, logic and rhetoric, and quadri- 
vium, which included arithmetic, geometry, astronomy 
and music. Reading and writing were studied under 
Latin grammar. This course took seven years. This 
course produced good reasoners but not fully developed 
men. "Latin, the language of the church, was made the 
basis of education, to the universal neglect of the mother - 
tongue." 

The relation of the course of study to theology is thus 
stated by a writer of the ninth century : "Grammar 
teaches us to understand the old poets and historians and 
also to speak and write correctly. Rhetoric, which 
teaches the different kinds and principal parts of dis- 
course, is important only for such youths as have not 
more serious studies to pursue and should be learned 
only from the holy fathers. In dialectic or logic, reason 
dwells and is manifested and developed. Arithmetic is 
important on account of the secrets contained in its num- 
ber. Geometry is necessary, because in Scripture circles 
of all kinds occur in the building of the Ark and Solo- 
mon's temple. Music and astronomy are required in 
connection with divine service." 

"The principal effect which the schoolmen had on 
education was to determine the form in which instruction 



44 OUTLINES OF THE 

should be given. They had, at the same time, a con- 
siderable indirect influence in stimulating the intellect to 
speculation, in rousing a dissatisfaction with dogmas 
which were incapable of proof, and in preparing^ the way 
for the reformation." 

During the middle ages, there existed the cathedral, 
parochial schools, and secular schools, which gave 
knightly education and burgher or town education. The 
cathedral schools were intended for the instruction of 
tlie priesthood. The instruction embraced the seven 
liberal arts. The parochial schools, supervised by the 
priest were to teach the young. Christian doctrine, and 
to prepare them for church-membership. The discipline 
was very severe. 

Knightly education was in sharp contrast with church 
education. Church education ignored physical training 
and polished manners. After passing through a vigor- 
ous training, a knight took a vow at the age of twenty- 
one 'to speak the truth, defend the right, honor woman- 
kind, and use his sword against the infidels of the East." 
This training led to a love of glory, a beautiful body, 
polished manners, and a high regard for the honor and 
virtue of woman. 

The burgher schools were the result of the growing 
power of the trading and artisan classes. Reading, 
writing and arithmetic were carefully taught. To these 
subjects were added geography, history, natural science 
and Latin. The teachers were poorly paid and wandered 
from place to place in search of employment. They 
were not well respected. 

One product of knightly education was the crusades. 
They probably, exercised a greater influence to advance 
civilization during the Middle Ages than any other 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 45 

cause. The crusades were undertaken to rescue the 
Holy Sepulchre from the infidel Mohammedans. The 
crusades "enlarged the contracted sphere of human 
knowledge. Foreign lands, and new customs, science, 
and arts were introduced into the circle of popular 
thought. The crusades led to the emancipation of many 
serfs, and elevated them to the rank of free peasants. 
They quickened commerce, trade and manufacture ; in- 
creased and strengthened the burgher class ; and extend- 
ed the power and influence of the cities. The knightly 
and burgher classes attained to a feeling of self-con- 
sciousness and independence. They emancipated them- 
selves, to some extent at least, from ecclesiastical tute- 
lage ; and this naturally led to a change in education." 



CHAPTER VIII. 



MONASTIC SCHOOLS. 



Benedictines. — The Benedictines, the Jesuits of the 
Middle Ages, were monks who observed the rule of St. 
Benedict. Their first monastery was built near Naples, 
528 A. D. The order was the most active during the 
tenth and eleventh centuries. 

It was the first intention of the order to give instruc- 
tion to those only, who were to enter upon a monastic 
life, but when the excellence of the instruction became 
known, the monks were induced to admit those who did 
not intend to lead such a life. Instruction was extended 
beyond the seven liberal arts, and included painting and 
poetry, and the Greek and Latin literature of the classic 
ages. Large libraries were founded. Benedictine nuns 
founded similar schools for girls, though these were not 
very largely attended. The rod was unsparingly used. 

These schools spread rapidly. Noted ones were es- 
tablished in Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany and 
England. After the twelfth century they declined, still 
there are a few of them to-day. Yarrow, in England, 
produced the illustrious Bede, and York, the learned- 
Alcuin. The Benedictines preserved the classics during 
the Middle Ages, published good editions of the Fathers, 
instructed the people, built universities, and fostered 
music, architecture and painting. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 47 

FRANCISCAN FRIARS 

The Franciscan Friars were an order of the CathoHc 
church, founded in 1182. Priests chose absolute poverty 
as a badge of a new apostate to carry the gospel to the 
poor. They went everywhere arousing the masses. 
They made Assisi the capital of Christian art. Their 
rule was carried on not in cloisters, but in the busiest 
haunts of man. They inspired a religious revival in the 
towns, which made men conscious of their ignorance and 
led to a desire for knowdedge. 



I 



DOMINICAN FRIARS. 

The order of Dominican Friars was founded at 
Toulouse, 1 2 16. They lived in strict discipline and es- 
tablished many monasteries. They were called Black 
Friars in England and Jacobins in France. Their first 
monastery in London was in the neighborhood of what 
is now called Blackfriars. Their reputation is stained 
by the part they took in the inquisition. The Jesuits in 
the sixteenth century gradually took the power exercised 
by the Dominicans. Thomas Aquinas, (1227 -1274) a 
noted schoolman, w^as the most eminent scholar belong- 
ing to the order. He was born in Naples and joined the 
order about 1243. After preaching with great success 
in Paris, he went to Rome to teach philosophy. He was 
a modest man, and did not seek conspicuous positions. 
He refused a bishopric. His greatest work is "Sum of 
Theology." 



CHAPTER IX 



EDUCATORS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 

Charlemagne (742-814). Charlemagne, king of the 
Franks and a Roman Emperor, was the most active and 
intelligent ruler of his time. Although actively engaged 
in carrying on wars for forty-three years, he studied 
science, Latin and Greek, spread Christian teaching, and 
built up a vast dominion. He discussed with the Bishop 
deep theological questions, familiarized himself with the 
foremost questions of his day. He was energetic, saga- 
cious and vigilant. He encouraged agriculture, trade, 
art and letters, and founded monasteries and schools. 

He contemplated the organization of a popular school 
system. The best teachers of the land were sought after. 
Seeing that the clergy was the only class that could sup- 
ply him with good teachers, he saw that they were thor- 
oughly educated. Schools were organized in the monas- 
teries, in which reading,writing, arithmetic, grammar and 
singing were taught. Feeling the importance of the de- 
velopment of language of a people, he ordered that the 
Lord's Prayer and the Apostles' Creed should be learned 
in the German tongue, but he said that God could be 
worshiped in the Latin and Greek tongues. The clergy 
were compelled to lead moral lives. Among the great 
scholars that he invited to his court was Alcuin of Eng- 
land. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 



ALCUIN. (735-804). 



Alcuin was considered the most learned man of his age. 
He was born at York. He founded schools at Aix-la- 
Chapelle and Paris. He was the first minister of public 
instruction in France. The Palatine school which 
followed the court on its travels, was founded by him. 
In this he taught Charlemange and his children 
rhetoric, divinity, logic, and mathematics. "France is 
indebted to Alcuin for all the polite training of which it 
could boast in that and the following ages." 

Alcuin's method has been likened to Socrates', but 
Alcuin's interrogations were not so searching as those of 
Socrates, nor did they call out the intelligence of the 
pupil as did those of the noted Greek. Alcuin's replies 
were good maxims with which to store the memory. He 
made the first attempt to form an "alliance between 
classical literature and Christian inspiration." He left 
many letters, poems, and works on theology. Seme 
say that he founded the universities of Paris and Tours. 
The monastic schools that he established gave a strong 
impetus to the world of learning. He caused the 
cathedral schools to be reopened and their course of 
study enlarged, and restored the manuscript of the old 
Roman literature as text books. . 



ALDHELM. ( 709.) 

Aldhelm was related to one of the West Saxon kings. 
He traveled in France and Italy, and afterward studied 
under the renowned Hadrian in Canterbury. He was a 
"man of universal erudition, having an elegant style." 
King Alfred regarded Aldhelm the best of all the Saxon 



50 OUTLINES OF THE 

poets. His musical talents were of superior merit. He 
founded a school at Malmesbury, England, and opened 
its doors to the secular clergy and expanded its curricu- 
lum to include Latin and Greek authors. 



- BEDE (THE VENERABLE.) (673-735.) 

The story of Bede's life is told in his own Ecclesiastical 
History of Britain. His education was obtained in a 
mona.stery. He became one of the most learned students 
of the Scriptures of his time. At nineteen he received 
deacon's orders ; at thirty, those of the priesthood. His 
industry is shown by his doing the usual manual labors 
of the monastery, the duties of the priest, the work of a 
teacher and by writing upwards of forty different treat- 
ises. His "Ecclesiastical History of Britain" was written 
to preserve among the Anglo-Saxons the memory of their 
conversion to the Christian faith and to tell them of 
their political life. 



^ABELARD. (1079-1142.) 

Abelard, a French philosopher, taught in many places, 
but largely in Paris. He sou£-ht to avoid the extremes 
of nominalism, the teaching that conceptions exist in 
name only, and realism, the teaching of real existences. 
He was subtle and skilled in logic, but he cared more for 
fame than he did for truth. His theological and philo- 
sophical writings kept the Christians of his day in high 
state of excitement. His influence upon the schools of the 
Middle Ages was great. He applied dialectics to theolo- 
gy and so "contributed more than any other to the 
foundation of scholasticism." 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 51 

SUMMARY OF MIDDLE AGE EDUCATION. 

1. Discipline was harsh, tending towards coarseness in 
manners. 

2. Education was Hterary, the Scriptures being the 
chief subject of study. 

3. Instruction was almost exclusively religious ; it was 
dogmatic "and exalted words over things. 

4. Training was for the life to come. 

5. Church and school were united. 

6. Education was regarded with a spirit of seriousness. 

7. Scholasticism prevailed. It led to nice discrim- 
inations and developed the powers of reasoning. 

8. Learning was a process of memorizing, which sti- 
fled independent inquiry. 

9. It was taught that Christianity included the whole 
human race, hence the intellectual enfranchisement of 
woman. This made primary education necessary. 

TO. It was shown how difficult it is to attain to 
symmetry and moderation in education. 



CHAPTER X. 



RENAISSANCE. 

The renaissance was the revival of learning during the 
15th and i6th centuries. The causes that led to the ren- 
aissance were : The strengthening of the governments 
of central Europe ; the establishment of universities ; 
numerous church councils ; the invention of the art of 
printing ; the acquaintance of different governments 
through diplomacy ; the revival of interest in the study 
of the Greek literature ; geographical discoveries ; and a 
settled form of national languages ; the crusaders ; the 
invention of the mariner's compass ; the breaking down 
of feudalism ; the invention of gunpowder ; and the rise of 
the great commercial cities. 

What is known as modern education begins with the 
renaissance. The education of the Middle Ages was 
repressive, rigid, formal, severe and narrow ; the revival 
of learning gave an education broader and more liberal. 
It produced a sound body for a sound mind ; freed itself 
from the fixed form of reasoning by the schoolmen ; 
quickened the moral sense ; strove after things, not 
words ; and attempted to develop the whole man. 

The theories of education in the sixteenth century 
were very much in advance of the age. It is doubtful 
whether we have to-day, in practice, caught up with the 
pedagogical precepts laid down by educational writers of 
that century. But the attempt to attain the ideal in 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 53 

teaching improved the condition of the schools. Ar- im- 
provement has been gradual but sure since then. 

Scholasticism gave way to humanistic education dur- 
ing this age. Scholasticism was the study of syUogistic 
reasoning. "The syllogism was a natural instrument of 
an- age of faith, when men wished to demonstrate immu- 
table dogmas, without ever making an innovation on 
established beliefs. It has often been observed that the 
art of reasoning: is the science of a people in the early 
stage of its progress. A subtle dialect is in perfect keep- 
ing with mianners still rude. It is only an intellectual 
machine. It is not a question of original thinking. 
Philosophy was but the humble .servant of theology." 
The study of the humanities, that is, of the Greek in the 
original, began about 1450, the time of the conquest of 
Constantinople by the Turks. When the Greek empire 
broke up, Greek scholars carried their literature to all 
parts of Europe. There were serious defects in human- 
istic education. Its ideal was the study of words, "First, 
words were taught instead of things ; second language 
was taught not as a living organic whole, fitted and com- 
pleted for the service of life, but as a collection of dried 
specimens tabulated and arranged by the ingenuity of 
grammarians." Bacon, through his inductive philoso- 
phy, seems to have shown the "insufticiency of the past 
and the bright hopes of the future. 

Humanities indicate the study of language, embracing 
the ancient classics, grammar, rhetoric, philology and 
poetry, or those studies pertaining to polite literature. 
The name implies that these studies have a tendency to 
humanize man — to make him cultured. These studies 
have been superseded of late by those that are deemed 
more practical, or more utilitarian. 



5i OUTLINES OF THE 

Scholasticism was a name applied to the Christian 
philosophy of the Middle Ages. It denied philosophy 
the right to discuss matters out of the church, thus it 
led to logic and dialectics. 

The schools of the humanists gave way to those of the 
realists. Under the humanists the dead languages and 
religious dogmas received undue prominence, the prac- 
tical side of life was ignored, the higher institutions were 
advocated and the elementery schools neglected. 
Rabelais was the first to check this one-sided education. 
He was soon followed by Montaigne and Bacon. The 
realist advocated the teaching of things rather than 
words and the acquisition of practical knowledge. 
Natural science and physical training was added to the 
school curriculum and teaching underwent a marked 
change. 



CHAPTER XL 



EDUCATORS OF THE IGth CEISTTURY. 



ERASMUS. (1467-1536.) 

Erasmus was was born at Rotterdam. He was 
educated at the University of Paris, where he showed 
himself to be a precocious student. He was placed in a 
monastery that his guardians might secure his patrimony. 
His studies were prosecuted with diligence. His travels 
through England, France, and Italy brought him the 
acquaintance of many prominent men, who paid him the 
homage that was due his talents. 

Erasmus did not teach, but he communicated his en- 
thusiasm for classical literature to his contemporaries. 
He said, "When I have money, I will first buy Greek 
books and then clothes." Through his industry and 
studiousness, he wrote many translations and original 
works. Many of these pertained to secondary education. 
He is called therefore one of the originators of it. 

At first he worked on friendly terms with Luther. 
Not being dogmatic, he therefore later dissented from 
some of the doctrines of Luther. He was egotistic, 
timid and undecided. He confessed, "I have no inclina- 
tion to risk my life for the truth. * * * Popes and 
emperors must settle creeds. If they settle them well, 
so much the better ; if ill, I shall keep on the safe side." 



56 OUTLINES OF THE 

The reformation had a strong contributing element in 
Erasmus. His preaching was for tolerance and for a 
Christian life. He was opposed to speculative theology. 
He published in 1516 the New Testament in Greek, 
which was an important contribution to the revival of 
letters. He said, '"'It is my desire to lead back that cold 
dispute about words called theology to its real founda- 
tion." 

Erasmus did much to improve education. He with 
Quintilian advocated that children should be early sent 
to school, that care should be given to their manners and 
morals and that'They should acquire a choice use of 
language. He insists that the efforts of children- should 
be adapted to their capacities, that they need plav as well 
as work, that discipline should not be too severe, that 
the objective method be used for teaching reading and 
that Greek and Latin should be taught. His ^Col- 
loquies is considered his best work. It is intended for 
the instruction of youth in Latin and in morals. His 
educational writings are keen and display good judg- 
ment. , All imitations, with which he charged the Cicero- 
nians, he was an enemy of. He says, ''The teacher ought 
to explain only what is strictly necessary for understand- 
ing the author ; he ought to resist the temptation of mak- 
ing on every occasion a display of his knowledge." He 
wrote ''On the Order of Study"; "Of the first liberal 
Education at CJiildrem" 



MELANCTHON. (1497-1560.) 



Melancthon, whose real name was Schwarzerd, was 
born at Bulten, Germany. He was early placed in the 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 57 

hands of a strict school-master, who taught him gram- 
mar. Through his scholarship, he won the regard of 
many eminent men, when he was a mere schoolboy. In 
15 1 5, he became professor of Greek in the University of 
Wittenberg. In this position he won deserved laurels. 
Luther became his devoted friend. 

His influence upon the education of Germany was 
salutary. He was an able teacher. Students from all 
parts of Europe came to his instruction. His relations 
with his students were of the most genial kind. He says, 
''I can truthfully affirm that I love all the students with a 
fatherly affection.'' His text books were so clear 
and so superior to others written before his day that some 
"oThis^were used over lOO 3^ears. He wrote the first work 
oiTdogrriatic theology in the Protestant church. Luther 
thought this next to the Bible. 

He is the author of the Saxony School Plan. This 
was used as the~BasTs of school organization throughout 
Germany for many years. In this plan he advocated the 
teaching of Latin,, the disuse of too many text books and 
the graded system. He recommended the study of 
Latin not German, Greek or Hebrew, that the children 
might learn something well. There were three grades 
proposed. In the first, reading, writing, Latin words, 
the Lord's Prayer, and the creed should be taught ; in 
the second, grammar and Latin reading, music and ex- 
planations of the scripture and Christian duties ; in the 
third, music and the ability to read and write Latin. 



LUTHER. (1483-1546.) 



One of the leading reformers of the i6th century was 
Martin Luther. He was born of humble parents, in a 



58 OUTLINES OF THE 

small German town. His father treated him severely. 
Through many trials he obtained his degree at the Uni- 
versity of Erfurt at eighteen. Finding a Bible in the 
library, he decided from its perusal to lead a monastic life. 

After graduation he was called to a chair in the Uni- 
versity of Wittenberg, where he lectured upon the Bible. 
After seeing the profligacy of the papal court, he began to 
preach against it. This was the beginning of the Ref- 
ormation. To answer for his doctrines, he was sum- 
moned before the imperial diet at Worms. He was urged 
to recant. But he said, "Unless I am proved to be in er- 
ror by testimony from Holy Writ, or by clear and over- 
powering reasons. I can not and will not recant." This 
stand brought to a successful issue brought an era of 
personal freedom and of civil and religious liberty. He 
died peacefully in 15^16. 

The success of the reformation made the establishment 
of schools necessary. Luther therefore became much 
interested in the schools of his day. His address to the 
councillors of all German cities is one of the most im- 
portant educational documents ever written. He taught 
that it is for the interest of church and of state for good, _ 
schools to be supported, that it is wise for public safety 
to maintain family discipline, that the work of the teacher 
is an exalted one and that learning is a source of wealth 
to a community. Germany was aroused by his appeals 
and the foundations for popular education were laid. The 
immediate result of this paper was that Luther's plans for, 
the organization of public instruction were adopted 
throughout Protestant Germany. New schools were es- 
tablished and old ones improved. 

Th.e--eduGatiQii_QL-girls owes its origin to this^^dress. 
Universal education was established and, ever after, the 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 59 

State \/as held responsible for the education of its sub- 
jects. 

"If we survey the pedagogy of Luther in all its extent 
and imagine it fully realized in practice, what a splendid 
picture the schools and education of the sixteenth century 
would present. We should have course of study, text- 
school books, teachers, methods, principles, and order of 
discipline, and school regulations, that could serve 
as models for our own age." 



/Ra^BLAIS. (1483-1553.) 

Rabelais, a Frenchman, was bred a Franciscan monk 
but afterwards became a Benedictine. He soon with- 
drew from these orders and became a professor of medi- 
cine, and later a corrector of texts in a printing house. 
To carry out educational reforms, he wrote his Life of 
Gargantua. 

Gargantua was a giant, who was sent to school to a 
scholastic. After forty-hve years of training, he meets 
a properly trained lad of twelve, Eudemon, and cries 
^'like a cow casting down his face and hiding it with his 
cap." Gargantua is now properly trained, and during 
this training Rabelais tells what should be the subject 
matter of education, its method and its results; he en- 
deavored to show that boys should be trained for the 
practical activities of life and Fe'rhade useful citizens." 

Gargantua and his teacher contemplate the beauties of 
the heavens evenings and observe the changes that take 
place there in the morning. At the table, they talk about 
the food upon it. In their walks, they observe every- 
thing—the flowers, the work-shops and the laborers at 



GO OUTLINES OF THE 

work. Occasionally a day is spent playing, singing, 
hunting, and fishing. The pupil is taught various kinds 
of manual labor. He is taught to engage in various 
games, such as ball playing, in swimming, and in rowing. 

Rabelais violently opposed scholasticism; he was the 
first pedagogue to appear as a realist. There is such a 
striking contrast between the education that he advocated 
and the education before his day that his system is called 
the new education. 

He advocated that teaching should be done by per- 
sonal influence of the teacher and subordinately through 
books ; teaching through the senses ; training for prac- 
tical life; equal development of mind and l:>od3^; inde- 
pendence of thought and gentle treatment. 

His ideas have exerted a powerful influence upon mod- 
ern education. The disturbed condition of his time did 
not permit them to produce immediate fruit. But they 
bore fruit in Montai9;ne, Locke, Rousseau and Comenius. 



JOHN STURN. (1507-1.589.) 

John Sturm, the rector of the Gymnasium at Stras- 
burg for forty -five 3'ears, was born in Prussia in 1507. 
"His ideal of education was piety, knowledge, and elo- 
(juence. He clearly knew wdiat he w^ished. and with 
ecjual clearness, he adopted means to its attainment." 

His Gymnasium had in its course of stud}^ ten classes. 
The groundwork of the course was Latin and Greek. It 
was humanistic. It was carefully graded, though it was 
narrow in its scope. Greek and Latin were given great 
prominence ; history, mathematics and natural science 



were ignored. 



The gymnasium was a model for many other classical 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 61 

schools in England and elsewhere to pattern after. 
Sturm gave a permanent form to the new education. 

Sturm's method of teaching Latin and Greek was that 
of double translation. He advocated that subjects with- 
in range of the abilities of the pupils should be taught, 
that too much at a time should not be demanded of the 
pupils, and what is demanded should be mastered. He 
proposed a systematic organization for the secondary 
schools, with a graded series of studies covering ten 
years. 

Sturm's teachers were compelled to know the work 
prescribed for the class preceding and following theirs. 
This brouGfht about coutinuitv of work. 



-^lONTAIGNE. (1533-1592.) 

Montaigne was born in France. He was at an early 
age placed in charge of a German tutor who spoke in 
Latin when talking with pupils. At an early age he held 
important political positions but he soon went into retire- 
ment, when he wrote his elaborate ''Essays" on all varie- 
ties of subjects. The titles of some of these are "The In- 
stmctiarL-aL.Children.'' "Pedantry," "The Affections of 
Fathers to their Children." His precepts are suggestive 
hints for reflection. They greatly influenced Rousseau 
and Locke. 

In his essay on "Pedantry," he says, "Too much 
learning stifles the soul, just as planets are stifled by too 
muclTmoisture andlamps by too much oil. Our pedants 
plunder knowledge from books and carry it on the tip of 
their lips just as birds carry seeds to feed their young. 
We only toil and labor to stuff the memory but leave the 



I 



62 OUTLINES OF THE 

conscience and understanding unfurnished and void." 
These statements show how thoroughly M ontaign e wa 
dissatisfied with the pedantry of his time. He insisted 
that the chief object of education was not to breed gram 
marians and logicians, but to form men. To bring about 
this result, great care should be used to select a good 
teacher. "He should rather have an elegant than a 
learned head, and his manners and his judgment are of 
more importance than his reading." 

He says, "I would understand my own language, and 
that of my neighbor with whom most of my business 
and conversation lies. No doubt Greek and Latin are 
very great ornaments, and of very great use ; but we may 
buy them too dear." He was opposed to the humanistic 
scheme of education ; he was a pronounced realist. ~~^T 

Montaigne was opposed to mechanical metht)ds of 
teaching and to severe discipline. He advocated^^eH" 
activity of the pupil in the use of all his powers and 
capabilities; things before words; judgment and un- 
derstanding before memory ; adaptation of instruction to 
the pupil's present abilities." ^ 



t 1 



ROGER ASCHAM. (1515-1565.) 

Roger Ascham, the father of pedagogy, received his 
Ijachelor's degree from Cambridge at the age of nineteen. 
As a mere boy, he excelled in Greek. He became pro- 
ficient in music and penmanship. His various endow- 
ments secured for him the position of tutor to Queen 
Elizabeth, Queen Mary and Prince Edward, and also 
secured for him some high positions in the government. 

He wrote the Schoolmaster, one of the first English 
works on pedagogy. This work deals with classical 



HISTORY OP EDUCATION. 63 

learning, and has many thoughts on punishments. He 
thinks that discipline, used to correct vice, does not be- 
long to the schoolmaster. Discipline should not tend to 
confound moral distinctions in the mind of the young. 
"Hasty chiding dulls the wit and discourages diligence." 
The book is chiefly devoted to a discussion of the 
author's method of teaching Latin. He used the double 
translation method, and urged that the translations 
from English into Latin should be compared with the 
original. He would have the pupil become familiar with 
the Latin and discover for himself the rules of syntax. 



16TH CENTURY SUMMARY. 

During this century scholasticism and pedantry re- 
^^yed a check. Humanistic learning was in the ascend- 
ency. Realists had— -gained a strong foot-hold. The 
mind began to think freely. The introduction of 
the study of natural history and mathematTcs widen-ed" 
th^Tange"of~sT;iidies. Women received better etiucatign 
and better attention w^as" given to_ manners an d^ morals. 
Instruction was adapted to the learner. The errors in 
the Middle Age education were checked. Principles and 
methods were harmonized. There was a reaction 
against instruction based wholly on authority. Against 
education of a professional character, there arose an_edu^ 
catiDn^aLalliber_aL type. Secular education received at- 
tention. Formal book-knowledge gave way to informal, 
direct instruction from subjects. That education is a 
.growth was gaining adherents. Teaching was becoming 
a training. 



CHAPTER XII. 



EDUCATORS OF THE 17th CENTURY. 



RAITCH. (1571-3635.) 

Raitch was a German. He devoted much study to 
Hebrew, Arabic and mathematics. He offered a new 
micthod of teaching to the German Diet at Frankfort, 
liis method, when he put it into practice, did not meet 
with success. He advocated that the pupil should get 
the formal rules of grammar through the study of good 
authors. This is learning a language from the concrete 
to the abstract, which method has had many advocates 
from his time down to our own. He is said to be the 
forerunner of Comenius. 

His methods failed, not because of the lack of their 
excellency, but because of the character of the man He 
declared that he "would only sell his discoveries to a 
prince at a dear rate," and that when sold they should be 
concealed by the purchaser. He was boastful, conceited, 
and without influence with men. Some of his principles : 

1. In all teaching follow the order and course of nature. 

2. Teach only one thing at a time. 3. Often repeat the 
same thing. 4. Team everything first in the mother 
tongue. 5. Team nothing by heart. 6. Teach every- 
thing by experience and inquiry. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 65 

FRANCIS BACON. (1561-1C26.) 

Francis Bacon was born in London, the son of the 
Lord-Keeper of the Great Seal. Under the influence of 
parents who displayed dignity, intellect and refinement, 
in the elegance of a palace and amid cultured associates, 
he had an excellent opportunity to cultivate his refined 
tastes. At thirteen he entered Cambridge, where he re- 
ceived a lasting contempt for the impractical studies of 
that institution. Here he saw students that were like 
''becalmed ships, that never move, but by the wind of 
other men's breath." 

He was not content with teaching that did not appear 
palpable to him. Finding that the secrets of nature could 
be learned from nature only, he broke with the scholastic 
routinists. His researches were made from original in- 
sY£Stigation.^~H^' discovered important principles in 
natural science and mathematics. 

After leaving college, he successively traveled, studied 
law and entered parliament. During this time he pub- 
lished a volume of Essays which are classic. Under 
James L, he held many important political positions. His 
life at the court is not without criticism. He was truck- 
Img and ungrateful to friends. He was thrown into the 
Tower for taking bribes, but soon obtained his release. 
His later days were spent in poverty and repentance, but 
; in literary activity. 

Bacon's work has had a powerful effect on education. 
He advocated that the true method of teaching proceeds 
from observation of the facts of nature.. 

Scholasticism received a death-blow from Bacon. For 
several centuries before his tirne, there were indications 
that the age of false premises and futile reasoning was 



66 OUTLINES OF THE 

drawing to a close. Thought was advancing; Bacon 
came to give direction to it. 

Bacon is the author of the inductive method. He desired 
man to become "the minister and interpreter of nature." 
He showed, through his greatest work — Instruatio 
Magna, how induction should be carried into different 
lines of inquiry. Investigation, experiment, verification, 
are characteristic features of Bacon's philosophy. "It is 
intensely practical ; it has been potent in turning modern 
thought into new channels, and has contributed largely 
to the scientific and material progress of the present." 
Before Bacon's tim^ thought was active ; he made it 
useful. 

l^Tacaulay says, "Two words form the key of the 
Baconian doctrine — utility and progress. His philosoph- 
ical views aimed To~rnake science minister to the 
worldly wants of mankind." 



COMENIUS. (1592-1671.) 

Comenius was born in Moravia, Austria, of parents 
who belonged to the Moravian Brethren. While young 
he lost his parents. Up to sixteen he received instruc- 
tion in reading, writing, arithmetic and the catechism. 
He then prepared for college. He was graduated from 
the University of Heidelberg. In the Thirty Years' 
war he lost all his property. He fled the country and 
found employment in the Moravian Gymnasium. Raitch 
and Bacon were perused, among other great educators. 

As a result of this study, he wrote his Didactica-. 
Magna, a profound study of education, and the funda- 
mental principles of which are: (i) That all instruction 
must be carefully graded ; (2) that, in imparting knowl- 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 67 

edge to children,, -th-e-teacher jiiust ap peal to the faculties . 
of sense perception. ~" 

Comenius' principle of gradation includes the school, 
the pupils, and the text-books. He divides school life 
into four periods of six years each. The first stage is 
called the mother school and begins as soon as the child 
leaves the cradle. The second is called the yernacular,. - 
school and lays the foundation for the work that follows. 
The third is called the Latin school ; this corresponds to 
the secondary school of to-day? "The pupil continues 
the subjects taught in the varnacular school and begins 
the classics. The last is called the university and allows 
the pupil to intensify any subject that he wants to make a 
specialty of. His method of teaching Latin is in his 
Gate of Tongues Unlocked. In this he advocates, 
''The human being tends" to utter what he apprehends. If 
he does not apprehend the word he uses, he is a parrot." 
Since the classical authors are too difficult, he composed 
a collection of common phrases,well graded, to be learned 
and Ilsed3}^the7student ~ "He insisted upon a study of 
the mother-tongue as of greater importance than the 
study of Latin, and declared that the study of a language 
to be a means, not an end. 

He was invited to England, Sweden and Hungary to 
explain his methods of teaching to representatives of 
those countries. Oxenstiern of Sweden, he greatly im- 
pressed. He remained in Hungary four years, and es- 
tablished a model school at Patak. 

These were years of great literary activity with 
Comenius. The most famous work of all his writings,, 
Orbis Pirtus, was written at this time. This was a 
popular text-book in Europe for many years. It con- 
tained ''the pictures and names of all the principal thing? 



68 OLTLINES OF THE 

in the world, and of all the principal occupations of men." 
It was the first illustrated school-book ever published. 
Comenius says in its preface ; "There is nothing in the 
understanding which was not before in the senses, and 
therefore to exercise the senses well in rightly perceiving 
the difference of things, w^ll be to lay the grounds for all 
wisdom, and all right discourse and all discreet action in 
one's course of life." 

Some of the principles to show that Comenius is 
rightfully called an educational reformer : 

I. E^ducation is a development of the whole man. 2. 
gdu£atLQnaL.in£.thods should follow the order of nature. 

3. Studies should be adapted to the capacity of the pupil. 

4. Discipline should aim at improving character. 5. 
WorJsTEould be learned in connection with things. 6. 
Tt is the aim of education so to direct and control the 
development of man's innate powers that he may fulfill 
his destiny wisely and conscientiously. 7. All must be 
educated, — universal education. 8. We must learn to 
do b}^_dping^ — a rule for teaching. 

■"He returned' from Hungary to his home at Lissa in 
1654. The Poles in 1656 sacked the town. He lost all 
of his valuable manuscripts and library. He said, "This 
loss I shall cease to lament only when I cease to breathe." 
He was then invited to Amsterdam where he spent the 
rest of his life writing, in the home of Laurence De Geer. 
Here he published a complete edition of his works. He 
exhibited in all his misfortunes a meek, Christian spirit. 



JOHN LOCKE. (1632-1704.) 

John Locke's father w^as an officer in the civil war of 
England. He early entered Oxford, and like Bacon re- 
ceived a lasting contempt for the educational practices 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 69 

there. He studied medicine but did not practice it. In 
its study he made praiseworthy advancement. He was 
early thrown in contact wth people of rank, but he did 
not lose his independence of character. 

He became instructor in the household of the Earl of 
Shaftesbury. Through this experience his attention was 
directed toward education. His Essay concerning Hu^ 
man Understanding was regarding the limitations and 
capabilities~tyf~th:e"Tnind. What Bacon had done to in- 
vestigate the principles of induction as applied to ex- 
ternal nature, Locke did in his investigation of the mind 
of^jnam' "He established the important doctrine that 
there are no innate principles in the mind, and that all 
ideas come from sensation or reflecton, from external or 
internal_ reflecton..' ' 

His greatest pedagogical work is TJiou^^s -efl~E4u:ea=- 
tion. It has special reference to the educaton of noble- 
meri. In it, he strongly advocates private instruction ; 
it has no claim as a system of universal education. He 
regards health and virtue more important than learning, 
but l earning an a id to virtue and wisdom. According 
to him education in its widest sense is the moulding 
force of life.' As against bookish learning, he taught 
''The function of education was to form noble men well 
equipped for the duties of practical life." Other thoughts 
from this essay are. ''There ought very early to be im- 
printed on his [pupil's] mind a true notion of God. 
Plenty of open air, exercise and sleep ; plain diet, no wine 
or strong drink ; not too warm and straight clothing. He 
that is about children should study their natures and ap- 
titudes. The exercises imposed upon pupils should be 
wisely adjusted to their powers and attainments. The 
mother-tongue has the highest claims upon us. A 



70 OUTLINES OF THE 

knowledge of Latin is overrated . The best way to 
learn a language is by practice, not by rule." According 
to Quick, ''I^£l<:e's aim was to give a boy a robust mind 
in sound body. * * * His spirits were to be kept up 
by ^ind_t]reatoi£nt, and learning was never to be a drudg- 
ery. * ^ >!= In everything the part the pupil was to 
play in life was steadily to be kept in view ; and the ideal 
which Locke proposed was not the finished scholar, but 
the finished gentleman." 



FENELON. (1651-1715.) 

Fenelon was remarkable for industry, intelligence and 
amiability. He was taught in his home until twelve 
years of age. Soon after this he went to Paris where he 
took a complete course of instruction. He studied 
theology, in which he won distinction. At an early age 
he was placed at the head of a Catholic institution in Paris 
for the education of women. 

At the request of the Duke and the Dutchess of Beau- 
villers, who had eight daughters to educate, Fenelon 
wrote his treatise On the Education of Girls. In it he 
points out the faults in the education of women, the prin- 
ciples and methods in the education of boys as well as of 
girls, and the duties and the studies of women. He says 
that women should be excluded from politics, law, and 
the minstry. Since woman has in her hands the details 
of domestic matters, she has the principal part in the good 
or bad morals of the world. Man cannot establish 
measures for good unless he has woman to aid him in 
their execution. Woman's education is a necessity, since 
"ignorant and idle girls have wandering imagination," 
turning curiosity to 'Vain and dangerous subjects." The 
education should begin at an early age and be pleasant. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 71 

"Let wisdom be forced upon him only at intervals." Girls 
should be instructed in reading, writing, arithmetic, his- 
tory, language, music, painting, in justice and govern- 
ment 

To instruct Louis XIV., a headstrong child, he wrote 
an admirable series of thirty-six Fables and seventy- 
nine Dialogues, and the Adventures of Telemachus. This 
mode of instruction, he called indirect instruction. 

The Fables show the bad uses to which unlimited 
power may be employed, the evil effects of bad temper, 
and many such suggestive instruction to correct the 
faults of the young prince. The Dialogues of the Dead 
relate the conversations in the region of the dead, of his- 
toric personages. These were intended to teach the 
young prince important facts of history and how to be- 
come a good and wise king. The Adventures of Telem- 
achus relates how the son of Ulysses searched for his 
father, and how he learned to govern justly under the 
direction of Minerva, in the guise of Mentor. 

Fenelon shows that education is a moulding force, 
that nature and art play an important part in teaching, 
that educaton may be a pastime, that fables may inculcate 
great moral lessons, that the instincts of a child are to be 
directed not repulsed, that a child should not be over- 
crowded, and that discretion should be used in the selec- 
tion of matters to be taught. 



THE JESUITS OR SOCIETY OF JESUS. 

The Jesuit schools were established by Ignatius Loyo- 
la in the i6th century. They checked the progress of 
the reformation. In western Europe they were numer- 
ous and their influence was beneficent. Protestants as 
well as Catholics flocked to them. The teachers were 



TS OUTLINES OB^ THE 

men of marked ability and consecrated to the interests of 
the school. The preparation for their work was long 
and painstaking. A daily preparation of their lessons was 
exacted and a careful supervision of their work was 
maintained. 

Loyola realized that "enthusiasm for the Order of 
Jesus must come from a source of power. * * * He 
fostered, therefore, a consciousness of strength. His 
clergy, he determined, should be made truly learned. * * 
The education, on the contrary, was to be made elabor- 
ately superficial, in order to give them that variety of 
learning which is the best safeguard against real thought 
and progressive study. [In this way] he created a me- 
dium, favorable to the influence of the astute minds of 
the clergy." 

Loyola's plan was greatly modified by other wise 
leaders of the Society. ''The child, in their scheme, is not 
to be brought to his own perfection, but is to be moulded 
into a symmetrical and unchangeable pillar of the Jesuit 
Order. He is not to become , not a human temple, but 
an infinitesimal fraction of the church Jesuitical." 

The course of study consisted of ancient classics, phil- 
osophy and theology. In the lower of the two courses, 
arithmetic, history and natural science were taught and 
by teachers not belonging to the order. In the higher 
course, the best teachers were employed. The methods 
adopted were uniform and agreeable and adapted to the 
capacity of the pupil taught. The teaching was largely 
oral. Emulation was appealed to in the form of badges, 
prizes, etc. An excellent knowledge of Latin was ob- 
tained. 

The Jesuits were very successful because they did not 
have an elaborate course and what thev taught they 



. HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 73 

taught well. Their chief purpose was to give a good 
Latin style. Then the spirit of emulation was thorough- 
ly aroused. In school pupils competed for rewards of 
different kinds, and public festivals were held to exhibit 
the pupils and to flatter parents. 

Those who criticise them say that they were nar- 
row in their .application of education and questionable in 
motive. "Nothing shows more clearly the essential 
weakness of their system than its inadaptability to mod- 
ern wants." 

But we can say in favor of the Jesuits that they were 
good schoolmasters, took care of the physical training 
and good manners of their pupils, were pioneers in the 
training of their teachers for the work and in providing 
supervision of the work while in progress, were the 
founders of many excellent colleges, still in existence, 
thoroughly trained the memory by frequent reviews and 
dissertations, and used the class-teaching system, which 
required the teacher to teach all subjects in a class and to 
take his pupils through several or all of the classes. 



THE PORT-ROYALISTS (JANSENISTS.) (1G43-1660.) 

The schools of Port Royal, near Paris, were founded 
by Saint Cyran. He said, "Education is, in a sense, the 
one thing necessary. I wish you might read in my 
heart the affection I feel for children." This was a 
characteristic feeling of the Jansenists for the work of 
teaching. These schools were started apparently to 
check the evil tendencies of the Jesuits, and therefore 
met with such persecution from that strong organization 
tha they existed but seventeen years. 

They discouraged emulation, gave to each teacher but 



74 OUTLINES OF THE 

five or six pupils and did not "forget the reverence due to 
the indwelhng, to the Holy Spirit." The pupils' studies 
were in French, not in the Latin language; their work 
was made agreeable. Steel pens were invented for the 
use of the children. Pupils were directed to ''speak lit- 
tle, bear much, pray more." Lessons were often given 
in the open air. 

The Jansenists became very influential through the 
text-books that they wrote. Nicole wrote a text-book 
in which he recommended the training of the senses and 
of the heart. Constel wrote Rules of Education for 
Children, and Arnauld, Elements of Geometry. 

The ''little schools" of the Jansenists, as they were 
called, trained but a few hundred children, but their spirit 
pervaded the whole. of France. Their text-books were 
models for their enemies even. 

The Jansenists aimed at thoroughness, studied language 
to give full meaning to truth, more than the form of the 
classical authors, based their teaching upon the mother- 
tongue, were free from pedantry, and gave an impulse to 
the study of the principles of Bacon. 



THE ORATORIANS. (1614.) 

The Oratorians were founded by Berulle in France in 
1614. This order was friendly to the Jansenists. It at- 
tempted to found an education, liberal and Christian. 
The Oratorians were sincere lovers of truth. In spite of 
the opposition given by the Jesuits, they grew in in- 
fluence. In fifteen years after its foundation, they had 
more than fifty houses or colleges. ' They took no part 
in politics. They promoted a study of their mother 
tongue. The study of geography was united with that 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 75 

of history. Both were enUvened by the use of wall 
charts. Two noted writers of the order were Lamy and 
Fleury. 



17TH CENTURY SUMMARY. 

The reformers of the 17th century insisted that noth- 
ing should be memorized that is not understood ; went 
from the simple and obvious to the complex, keeping in 
view the growing powers of the child, thus making the 
acquisition of knowledge agreeable, and largely doing 
away with punishments ; cultivated the power of obser- 
vation ; and taught subjects that will be useful in life. 
Advance steps were made in mathematics. Letters were 
used to represent known quantities, principles pertaining 
to exponents, positive and negative roots were intro- 
duced by Descartes, and the calculus was invented by 
Newton and Leibnitz. Believing that the Greeks had ex- 
hausted all scientific knowledge, the reformers strove 
for a rnastery of the Greek and Latin authors. Educa- 
tion was largely ecclesiastical. The influence of noted 
philosophers, such as Bacon, was felt. The education of 
girls was promoted. American education had its be- 
ginning. 



CHAPTER XIIL 



EDUCATORS OF THE 18th CENTURY. 



[ROUSSEAU. (1712-1778.) ich 

One of the men who has exerted the greatest in- 
fluence over the destinies of pedagogy is Rousseau. He 
was born in Geneva, the son of a watchmaker. The 
sensitive fancy of his childhood was fed on romances, 
which he says he thoroughly felt. He was first an at- 
torney and then an engraver, both of which positions he 
soon left in disgust. He successively changed his re- 
ligious faith, entered the service of a nobleman who gave 
him some education, and then lived with Alme. de 
Warens, where he studied zealously philosophy and poli- 
tics. Losing her favor, he went to Lyons, where he 
tutored two boys. As a teacher, he was a failure, for he 
I" ad such a hasty temper that he could not control him- 
se'f and certainly not his pupils. 

He lost the favor of Catholics and Protestants, because 
of alleged heresy and immorality. He filed to England, 
where he was kindly received by Hume. Quarreling 
with him, he returned to France. 

"His life was a singular paradox. . . . . This 

man, who wrote admirable pages upon domestic afifection^ 
friendship and gratitude^ chose a companiori' unworthy 
of him, placed his children in a foundling hospital, and 



. HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 77 

showed himself unjust and harsh toward his friends. All 
the time doing wrong, he believed himself moral, because 
he loved virtue." 

Rousseau's reputation as an author rests upon his 
Emile. The work shows the influence of Montaigne and „ 
RaheLajs _oj2_ its^ ^^ov. It shows a keen insight into 
child^jijjiire._aniL.t^^^ of his day. There 

'are five sections in the book, dealing with earliest child- 
hood, up to Emile's twelfth year, to his fifteenth, to his 
twentieth and up to marriage. Education is not to make 
a citizen, but a man. Nature, men and things are the 
educating influences. 

In Emik, the author sets forth in detail the matter and 
method of teaching. Some of the truths in it are : People 
4o not understand childhood ; nature requires children 
tQ_be children. The child must learn to feel warmth 
and coldness, the hardness, softness and weight of bodies ; 
to judge of their figure, magnitude and other sensible 
qualities. Tao much reading serves only to make us '3) 
presumptous blockheads. By the developing method,,..^ 
we do n_o t accus tom ourselves to a servile submission to ' 
the3lUliority...oL.Dthers. All the education of women 
ought to.be relative to that of men. He pays a glowing 
'-Tribute to the gospel of Christ. 

Rousseau starts out in Emile with the statement that 
"all is good as it issues from the hands of the author of all 
things ; everything degenerates in the hands of man." 
He repeatedly talks about restoring the child "to the 

. state of nature." The successive stages of education are: 
(i)E4ucation of the body and senses. .. (till twelfth year); 

. (2) int^U^t^uaredup (to tbe fifteenth year); (3) 

moral education (to the twentieth year). The intellectu- 
al education should- be i.\tilitarian--the study of the prac- 



78 OUTLINES OF THE 

tical arts and sciences. JN^qraL-education should, be sen- 
timental, and religious education should be delayed to"' 
^event superstitious feelings. 

Rousseau did not strive to give an education that 
would prove a panacea for all evils. He wrote : ''An 
education of a certain kind may be practicable in Swit- 
zerland, but not in France ; one kind of education may be 
best for the middle class, and another for the nobility." 

The underlying current of Emile is, ''Freedom ; libera- 
tion from the bonds of a degenerated civilization ; de.-_ 
struction of traditional prejudices and abuses ; respect for 
human individuality ;equality before the assizes of society 
and political organization ; return from the darkness of 
intolerance, on the one hand, and hideous atheism on the , 
other, to the light of reason, simplicity of faith, and an all 
embracing charity." 



BASEDOW. (1723-1790.) 

Basedow belonged to a group of educators known as 
philanthropinists, named after the first school founded 
by them. The philanthropinists sought to correct the 
improper instruction of their time. They advocated 
everything according to nature. Comenius, Locke and 
Rousseau greatly influenced them. 

Basedow was born at Hamburg. His father was a stern 
man, who did not at first see the promise of his son. 
Wh.en he did see it, he was sent to school at a gymnasium. 
Later he went to Leipsic, where he studied theology. 
His heterodox ideas debarred him from his destined pro- 
fession. As tutor and professor his heterodox ideas put 
him under a special ban and excluded him from the com- 
munion. 

In 1768, be pubHshed his School Studies. His 



HISTOEY OP EDUCATION. 79 

elementary book was a kind of Orbis Pictus, intending 
to teach morals, nature, duties of citizens, and business. 
He applied the theories of Rousseau on his daughter 
Emilie. She at five was able to speak French, Latin and 
German and was fond of domestic duties. 

In 1774, he founded his Philanthropinum, where he ex- 
perimented with the methods of Rousseau, Locke and 
Comenius. He undertook to teach children a language 
in a year. To shorten the work of learning, he says that 
all text books should be put in such relations with each 
other that one shall shorten or lengthen another. His 
school rose rapidly and fell as rapidly. He strove to 
overcome the dull routine of school work and the gloomy 
surroundings of pupils prevalent in his day, by taking 
proper care of body, soul and mind. His methods of 
moral instruction were *'an elaborate ceremonial." Many 
books have been written to disseminate his ideas. The 
"Swiss Family Robinson" is one of these. He followed 
nature in all things, gave careful training to the body, 
guided the pupil by love, appealed to direct observation, 
and encouraged manual work and dress that would give 
freedom to the body. 

His book of methods gives faithfully his pedagogical 
opinions. He says that the public and domestic educa- 
tion is not adapted to the needs of the times. To bring 
about the required adaptability, he says that new text 
books must be written and teachers' training schools 
must be established. He declares that the aim of an edu- 
cation should be *'to prepare children for a useful, patriot- 
ic and happy life." Instruction from things must really 
furnish the intellect with new ideas, and not fiU up the 
child's memory with new words only. * * * Few 
words and much doing." 



ao OUTLINES OF THE 

What philanthropinism has done for pedagogy : It at- 
tempted to raise pedagogy to a science ; it secured physi- 
cal culture as a part of the school disciplyie ; it employ- 
ed illustrative teaching in place of memory cramming ; 
it made school-rooms cheerful by placingMn them lov- 
ing friends in place of despots ; it banished Ihe whip and 
ferrule ; it introduced hygienic dress ; it advocated man- 
ual training. 

I 

18TH CENTURY SUMMARY. 

The 1 8th century began under favorable auspices. 
Bacon, Sir Isaac Newton and other thinkers of the 17th 
century gave their influences to the reformers of the i8th._ 
But this century, marked with political and social unrest, 
was a period of fermentation, which bore its fruit for the 
next age. Some of the characteristic phases of the edu- 
cation of this century were its spiritual character as set 
fort by Francke, its utilitarian tendencies, the profession- 
al training of teachers, its interest in pedagogic questions, 
the more liberal spirit with the universities, the beginning 
of the work of Pestalozzi, the growth of popular educa- 
licii in Germany, education tended to become national 
aj.d hr.mane, and education aimed at the most complete 
development of the individual order. 

The humanistic movement of the eighteenth century 
made the classics, of antiquity the basis of culture. It 
was a reac^tion against the: realists, represented by Rous-, 
seau and the philanthropinists ; /'(O Humanism aims at 
general culture ; philanthropinism at utility. (2) Hu- 
manism, seeks, to^ e5?:eTcise;; aad. strengthen the mind ; 
pMlanthxopinisni, to fill it with- < useful knowledge. (3) 
Humanism demands but few subjects of study; phil- 



HISTOKY OF EDUCATION. 81 

a£ithropmism many. (4) Humanism exercises the mind 
with ideas ; philanthropinism with things. (5) Human- 
ism deals with the true, the beautiful, and the good, the 
elements of human culture ; philanthropinism, with mat- 
ter." Representatives of humanistic learning in the 
eighteenth century were^Wolf, Gesner and Heyne. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



EDUCATORS OF THE 19th CENTURY. 



^^PESTALOZZI. (1746-1827.) 

Pestalozzi was born at Zurich, Switzerland. At the 
age of five he lost his father, when he was thrown under 
the influence of a good mother, but he kept himself so 
completely in the narrow confinement of his mother's 
chamber that the real life of men was as strange to him 
as if he had not lived in the world. He was called by his 
mates "Wonderful Harry from fool's town." 

Pestalozzi studied for the ministry but after reading 
Rousseau's Emile, he decided to study law that he might 
be of greater usefulness to his country. This change 
proved a failure. At^ Neuhof, he determined to devote 
.himself to agriculture. This enterprise was a failure. 
Still under the influence of Emile, he opened an industri- 
al school for the poor. In this work he was greatly as- 
sisted by his estimable wife. But in five years the school 
was closed. The children were unaccustomed to disci- 
pline, and would often run away as soon as they were 
decently clothed. He was patient w^ith them all, and 
''lived like a beggar to teach beggars how men live." 

His first work was^^he Evening Hours of a Recluse. 
It contains principles of education. Education in the 
family, knowledge of things, and love in the home are 
some of the thoughts discussed. The work that made 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 83 

hini f.-imQus was his Leonard and Gertrude. He re- 
ceived as a result of its publication medals from educa- 
tional societies and letters of praise from princes. It 
was written "to bring about a better education for the 
people, arising out of their true position and their natural 
circumstances." Gertrude, the wife of the weak-minded 
Leonard, is a model mother. Pestalozzi tells how Ger- 
trude manages her home and brings up her children. He 
tried to supply the want of good schools to educate prop- 
erly the young by giving to the mothers such principles 
of teaching as would enable them to bring up their chil- 
dren as well as they could if they possessed a knowledge 
of all the sciences. 

During the French revolution, Stanz, with many other 
Swiss towns was burned. Many orphans were without 
a home. Pestalozzi became a father to eighty of these 
between four and ten years of age. He found the chil- 
dren in all states of wretchedness. He tried to combine 
learning with handiwork. He saw the condition of the 
children change "as winter is changed to spring by the 
action of the sun." He says, "my tears flowed with 
thc'irb aiii mv smile accompanied theirs. * * k ]; 
slept in their midst ; I was the last to go to bed at evening 
and the first to rise in the morning." After nine months, 
the French returned and turned his school building into 
a hospital. In rSai he wrote "How Gertrude Teaches 
her Children." In_j:8o2, he went to Yverdun, and es- 
tablished a school which received a national reputation. 

Pestalozzi was the author of what is known as object 
teaching; i. e.,"feacKing by means of visible objects. 
5ome of the features of the Pestalozzian instruction are : 
The mind of the child should be developed through his 
and experience ; the child's mind should be furnished 



8i OUTLINES OP' THE 

with clear fundamental notions; truth should be pre- 
sented to the child objectively ; instruction should pro- 
ceed from the known to the unknown, from the near to 



the more remote ; mental should be associated with man- 
ual labor ; the relation^ between teacher and pupil should 
be love; character should be the standard of instruction; 
and^ home instru ction should be possible. 

Fit.Mi says, "Oliver Wendell Holmes once said of 
Emerson that he was an iconoclast without the hammer ; 
that the idols he sought to dethrone he took down from 
their pedestals so quietly and reverently that he seemed 
more like one performing an act of worship. In some 
sense this is true of Pestalozzi. He, too, was an icono- 
clast, but he went about his work in a very different 
spirit from that which animated Rousseau to whom he 
was in other respects nearly akin. ^ ^ ^ There is in 
Pestalozzi little or no denunciation ; none of the iierce 
revolt against established notions and usages which char- 
acterized Rousseau ; only an earnest appeal to parents 
and teachers— all the more effectual because so restrained 
and modest — to follow books and trad itions less and to. 
study nature and childhood more."_, \: ^JP-S^ 

Rosenkranz says of the pedagogic achievements of 
Pestalozzzi: ''(i) In the method of instruction, he has 
substituted for the artificial and playful modes of proced- 
ure, the striving after the cheerful seriousness resulting 
froni,_ and embodied in, the form of development given _ 
by nature herself. 

(2) He has emancipated t-he government of children ^ 
from all terrorism. In place of compulsion and lifeless 
mechanism, he has put the most loving treatment of 
pupil, in order to habituate him to self-activity and self- 
esteem. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 85 

(3) He has opened our eyes to the fact that all culture 
ofjndividual intelligence and all moral elevation of the"in- 
dividual will are vain in the end if they do noFissue forth 
from out of the whole spirit of a people and do not flow 
back into it as its original property. He has taught 
us to regard education essentially as a national educa- 
tion.^ 

Summary : Pestalozzi is regarded as the founder of 
modern pedagogics. He has had a powerful influence 
on elementary education. His principles underlie all 
primary schools of to-day. Froebel further developed 
them practicahy and Herbart theoretically. Rosen- 
kranz was his disciple and Herbert Spencer, one of his 
most illustrious followers. 



FROEBEL. (1782-1852.) 

Frederick Froebel was born in a small town in Ger- 
many. His mother died when he was a baby and his 
father was too busy a pastor to give his boy any attention.. 
While watching workmen repairing a church from his 
nursery window, he received the impulse to devise ma- 
terials for children's playthings for instructive purposes. 
He could not get interested in the formal lessons of the 
old school and was therefore pronounced dull. He en- 
tered the Uuiversity at Jena at i8, but soon left for lack 
of means and because he did not become interested in 
the instruction given. While at Frankfort, he was made 
teacher in a normal school. He now felt that he was in 
his proper element. 

He heard of Pestalozzi at Yverdun. His enthusiasm 
was thoroughly kindled. In 1815- he established a 
school at Keilhau, where self activity might be connected 



86 OUTLINES OF THE 

with manual labor. After a varied experience of fifteen 
years, he became convinced that the time had come when 
a change in the methods of instruction should be made. 
He then founded the Kindergarten, upon which his fame 
rests. He said, "I can convert children's activities, ener- 
gies, amusements, occupations, all that goes by the name 
of play, into instruments for my purpose, and therefore 
transform play into work. This work will be education 
in the true sense of the term. These children have 
taught me how I am to teach them." 

The Kindergarten receives children at an early age, 
gives direction to their ideas, develops their powers har- 
moniously and prepares them for the ordinary school. 

Its purpose is thus indicated by Froebel himself : ''To 
take the oversight of children before they are ready for 
school life ; to exert an influence over their whole being 
in correspondence with its nature ; to strengthen their 
bodily powers ; to exercise their senses ; to employ the 
awakening mind ; make them thoroughly acquainted with 
the world of nature and of men ; to guide their heart and 
soul in a right direction, and lead them to the origin of 
all life and union with Him." 

The kindergarten is no school in the true meaning of 
that term ; it is a "childe's garden," in which children may 
exercise their natural taste, where there are no text 
books, but where there is activity — "activity of the limbs, 
activity of the senses, activity of the mind, heart and ot 
the religious instinct. It is not an infant school where 
children are sent to get them out of the way." Play, 
therefore, has its educating influence. "The child, 
through the spontaneous activity of allTiis^ natural forces, 
is really developing and strengthening them for future 
uses ; he is working out his own education." 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 87 

Note in Froebel the thoughtful student of child life: 
"1 see that those children delight in movement. I see 
that they observe. I see that they invent." "Play is 
desultory education." He organizes the self -activities of 
-ehil-dren . as a basis, on which to build the future super- 
structure. 

Froebel's gifts are the implements used for the exercise 
of the intellectual faculties. Games, songs and gifts are 
employed in the Kindergarten system. His principal 
work is the Education of Man. It treats of the child 
preceding hb-^indergarten age and gives many hints 
to guide the mother, who is nature's deputy, in her treat- 
ment of him. Compayre says of it: "The introduction 
is the most interesting part of it. The idea of general 
phylosophy is. 'Everything comes solely from God.' 
Frobel is logically brought to this psychological state- 
ment, that everything is good in man, for it is God who 
acts in him. The pedagogical conclusion is:. Educa- 
tion shall be essentially a work of liberty and spontanei- 

ty." 

Leading ideas in Froebel's educational system : 
"(i) As the child's development begins with its first 
breath, so nmst its education also. 

(2) He desires for human education and instruction 
a developing^jnethod, education accordng to nature's 

Jaws.-- 

(3) The^iritual and physical development are close- 
ly bound up in each other. 

(4) Th^ instincts of the child, as a being destined to 
become reasonable, express not only physical but also 
gpi dtual wants. Education has to satisfy both. 

(5) He wants as end of human education, a life 
harmonious on all sides with God, men and nature.'^ 



88 OUTLINES OF THE 

JACOTOT. (1770-1840.) 

Joseph Jacotot was a noted French educator. He was 
born in Dijon, and died in Paris. He was a Greek and 
Latin professor at Dijon, was appointed by Napoleon to a 
chair of mathematics in a normal school, afterwards 
was secretary to the minister of war and later a directo 
of the polytechinc school. In 1818, he was lecturer on 
French literature in the University of Louvin. In 
Belgium, he taught French to pupils who spoke nothing 
but Dutch and Fleniish. It was here that his so-called 
universal iTiCthod was expanded and applied. 

Tliis m.ethod contemplated theCorrelation of all knowl- 
edge. Some fact is thoroughly learned by long con- 
templation and observation ; this becomes the key to the 
acquisition to other facts. This requires close attention 
and concentration, and develops innate powers of the 
pupil. He placed in the hands of the pupils at Louvin a 
copy of Telemachus, with the French on one page and 
the Dutch translation on the other, and required them 
to get the meaning of the text and to recite in French. 
They were required, by skillful questions from the teach- 
er, to correct their own errors. Pupils, in this way, were 
led to educate themselves. His method followed the or- 
der of learning, repeating, comparing, and verifying. 
Comparison and verification demanded intellectual ac- 
tivity of the pupil. 

He enunciated several maxims, which are seemingly 
paradoxes. "All human beings are equally capable of 
learning. Everyone can teach ; and, moreover, can 
teach that which he does not know himself. All is in 
all." For a thorough discussion of these maxims, the 
reader is referred to Quick's Educational Reformers. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 89 

THOMAS ARNOLD. (lT95-184-i.) 

Thomas Arnold, losing his father while quite young, 
received a careful education from his mother and aunt. 
He was graduated from Oxford with honor. While pre- 
paring to publish some of his works, his studies and dis- 
cussion of religious topics, he became convinced that the 
noblest life is to be found in the Christian ideal. His 
success as a teacher is attributable to his religious spirit 

In 1828, he became head-master of Rugby, and his 
record here is one of the most brilliant to be found in the 
history of teaching. His success here was "due to his 
own earnest endeavor to apply the principles of Chris- 
tianity to life in the school as well as out of it." His 
ilevotion to Christian principle had an unbounded in- 
fluence on his boys in school. The boys at Rugby were 
ashamed to tell Dr. Arnold a lie. If a boy attempted to 
explain a statement, the doctor would say, "If you sav 
so, that is quite enough. Of course I believe your word." 
"Tom Brown at Rugby" gives a good picture of one of 
the best schools that England has ever had. 

Arnold changed the. nature of public school education 
in England. He showed that school teaching is not to 
be despised and that a schoolmaster should be a man of 
first-rate powers and should be respected. He intro- 
duced a higher moral tone into the school ; his school 
sermons imparted a religious life to his pupils. He gave 
a new impetus to the classics. He had an intimate ac- 
quaintance with each pupil. He made the school a place 
of training for life, a place where the teacher -must de- 
velop in the scholar a good wiU. The possibility of a 
manly piety was shown in his school. 

His influence was great, because he was so whole- 
hearted, so true in all that he did. His sympathies with 



90 OUTLINES OF THE 

boys made him a real leader of them. One of his pupils 
has said, "I always felt that Dr. Arnold was one of the 
greatest and best men, for whom I would have made any 
effort, for whom I used to think I would gladly die. I 
felt, too, that there was work for me to do for him in the 
school, and to this end I would labor to raise the tone of 
the set I lived in, particularly as regarded himself." 

He was governed by two main principles — "as a train- 
er of character, he aimed to make his pupils Christian 
gentlemen, as a trainer of mind, to m.ake them think." 



• HERBERT SPENCER. (1820 

Herbert Spencer came from a family of teachers. His 
father wrote a text-book on geometry, which was 
used many years. At seven he could not read ; he en- 
joyed games, rambling, etc. His father encouraged him 
to gather insects, to watch their transformation and to 
make drawings of insects gathered. He was frequently 
disobedient. His father's library was quite an attraction 
to him. 

Science, according to Spencer, is the chief staple of an 
education. The test of the worth of an education is de- 
termined by the w_a)/ in which one treats the body and 
m.ind, arranges his business, brings up a family and be- 
haves as a citizen. Science helps to get a livelihood and 
to make money ; it trains for citizenship. The process of 
self-development should be encouraged to the utmost. 
Instruction should excite interest. Intellectual activity 
is not to be sacrificed to routine. 

He became interestM-iiL-the-jLheory of evolution, as 
explaining the cause of the diversity in the animal king- 
dom. His views are reflected in his only educational 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 91 

work, EcUi^a tinri This confirms the conclusions made 
by Montaigne, Locke, Rousseau, and others. He at- 
tempts to lay down a scheme of education according to 
his views of evolution. He argues that the study of 
SQi^n££._aid&Jn teaching ^he^ concrete before the abstract 
and gives interest to study, that corporal punishment and 
rote'-teaching should be abandoned, and that mental 
~growt'h~by inherent power is superior to artificial expan- 
sion produced by purely exterior forces. 
" Herbert Spencer "shows that growth is organic, sub- 
ject to the ordinary laws of organic development. Thus, 
he made psychology strictly a natural science, to be 
henceforth modified, extended in its scope, corrected in 
its errors, hmited in its theories, by the same laws of 
criticism that apply to other nat:iral sciences. Availing 
himself of the discovery of the laws of evolution, of the 
correlation, the indestructibility, and unstability of forces, 
of their inseparability from matter, he has built up a sys- 
tem of psychology, which * * * jg destined * "^ 
to become one of the most potent agencies in hastening 
the recognition of correct principles of education." 



BAIN. (1818 ) 

Alexander Bain was born in Scotland and was gradu- 
ated from college in 1840. He occupied college chairs at 
different times and always with success. He pubUshed at 
different times good educational works ; among them are 
Mental and Moral Science. Education as a Science. 

He discusses most instructively the law of the conser- 
vation and" correlation of forces. He says that ''man has so 
much vital force, which may be expended in labor, in in- 
tellectual effort, or in emotion ; but that which is used in 



93 OUTLINES OF THE 

one way cannot be used in another." Shoup says that 
"this statement is recommended to the consideration of 
those who teach that manual labor is a rest from study, 
and study a rest from work — that sawing wood is an ad- 
mirable means of repose for man or boy exhausted by 
manual application." 

Bain's writings on education are very valuable. "Per- 
haps the most interesting part of them consists in his 
showing how what may be called correlation of forces in 
rnan helps us to a right education. From this we learn 
that emotion may be transferred into intellect, that sen- 
sation may exhaust the brain as much as thought, and we 
may infer that the chief duty of the schoolmaster is to 
stimulate the powers of each brain under his charge to 
the fullest activity, and to apportion them in that ratio 
which will best conduce to the most complete and har- 
monious development of the individual." 



HORACE MANN. (1796-1859.) 

Horace Mann was born in Franklin, Massachusetts. 
He lost his father when a mere boy. His mother did 
not enter into the sympathies of the boy. He had few 
books and poor instructors. Theology to him was at 
an early age a burden, but later he took a bright view of 
Christianity. His habits were spotless. He aspired to 
do good to mankind. He was graduated from Brown 
University after three years' work there. He studied 
law, but was soon called to teach Latin and Greek in 
Brown. 

In 1837, he became secretary of the board of education 
of Massachusetts ; in this position he did the work of his 
life. His twelve reports are educational classics. _ The 
fifth was especially noted. It gives "the advantages of 



I 



HLSTORY OF EDUCATION. 93 

education, the effects of it upon the futures of men, the 
production of property, and the multiphcation of human 
comforts." He was instrumental in estabhshing a nor- 
mal school at Lexmgton, the first in the state, and the 
nrst teachers' institute. 

Mann says, "In a social and political sense, ours is a 
free school system. It knows no distinction of rich and 
poor, of bond and free, or between those who in the im- 
perfect light of this world are seeking through different 
avenues to reach the gate of Heaven. Without money 
and without price, it throws open its doors, and spreads 
the table of its bounty for all the children of the state." 

A record of what Mann did for the schools of Mas- 
sachusetts is difficult to equal. Under his direction and 
advice, two millions of dollars was assessed for the school 
_hLuii4iag^ teachers' salaries were doubled ; tlie_xiiuality of_ 
teaching vv-i^s vastly im.proved ; text-books were 
adapted to practical instruction and becarne„,ua-iform ; 
pupils were classified and well graded; normal schools 
and teachers' institutes were established; .su-pejr vision 
rnore systematic and intelligent ; and the state was made 
to feel that its strength lies in general education. 

Mann's writings show that he was an educational re- 
former. They do not contain formally stated pedagog- 
fcarprinciples. This is accounted for, by his being an 
educator by instruction rather than by training. He 
says, ''Acquirement and pleasure should go hand in hand._ 
The mind acquires, by a glance of the eye, what volumes 
of books and months of study could not reveal so liv- 
ingly through the eye. Other things being equal, the 
pleasure which a child enjoys, in studying or contemplat- 
ing, is proportioned to the liveliness of his perceptions, 
and ideas. Error becomes the conseauence of seeing 



94 OUTLINES OP THE 

only parts of the truth. [Hence 'no scrap-book' method 
of teaching reading.] A lofty and enduring character 
cannot be formed by ignorance and chance." 



DAVID p. PAGE. (1810-1848.) 

David P. Page was born in New Hampshire on a farm. 
A love for books was early shown, though he was re- 
strained from attending an academical school at an early 
age by his father, who desired his son to be a farmer. 
During a severe sickness, the father, however, relented 
and sent the boy to Hampton Academy. 

The year following he taught at Newbury, Mass. 
His success was marked. He went to his classes wdth 
thoroughly prepared lessons, thus imparting to his pu- 
pils fresh information. He adapted his instruction to 
the capacities of his pupils, and aroused their aspirations 
for purity and goodness. 

He was an active member of teachers' associations, 
and his papers before them were pronounced superior in 
every particular. In 1844 he was made principal of the 
first normal school in New York state, at Albany. His 
success here was immediate, but the work to make the 
school so was too much for his health, and he sank into 
his grave in 1848. He had "the happy talent of always 
saying the right thing at the right time. He was more 
than ordinarily prepossessing — of good height and fine 
form, erect, and dignified in manner, scrupulously neat 
in person and easy in address." His principal work is 
''Theory and Practice of Teaching," one of the most 
valuable contributions to pedagogical literature. 

David Page obtained his schooling in Hamp- 
ton academy, yet he has never had a super- 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 95 

ior as teacher, in the teaching profession. He 
would have graced a position in any college at thirty- 
eight years of age — his age at the time of his death. 
Henry Barnard has said, "As a teacher, he exhibited two 
valuable qualifications, — the ability to turn the attention 
of his pupils to the principles which explain facts, and in 
such a way that they could see clearly the connection; 
and the talent for reading the character of his scholars, 
so accurately, that he could at once discern what were 
their governing passions and tendencies — what in them 
needed encouragement and what repression." 



HENRY BARNARD. (1811-1898.) 

Henry Barnard was graduated from Yale in 1830, and 
was admitted to the bar in 1836. As a member of the 
Connecticut legislature, he secured the passage of the act 
for the common schools, under which the State Board of 
Commissioners was organized. Mr. Barnard's duties as 
secretary of this board was to disseminate information 
and to devise means for improvement of the schools. 
The reports of Mr. Barnard were helpful. He was called 
to Rhode Island where he did a similar service for that 
state. He was made principal of the New Britain, Conn., 
normal school, in 1849. This was the third one in the 
United States. 

His American Journal of Education is his most noted 
work. This was established in 1855. At first it appear- 
ed monthly, later quarterly. Each number contains 
about 200 pages and gives educational biography, and 
national and foreign school systems. "Upon the whole, 
no American journal devoted to education has had a 
mor€ general or salutary influence upon the higher edu- 



96 OUTLINES OF THE 

cation, or has done more to dignify the cause of liberal 
culture." He was appointed in 1867 the first United 
States Commissioner of Education. 



FREDERICK HERBART. (1776-1S41.) 

Frederick Herbart was born in Oldenburg, Germany. 
He w^as prepared for the gymnasium of his native town 
by his mother and a tutor. Five years later he entered 
the noted Jena University. 

After graduation he became a teacher. He soon pen- 
etrated into the ethical and psychological truths of edu- 
cation. He became accjuainted with and was a warm 
friend of the distinguished Pestalozzi. The personality 
and ideas of Pestalozzi greatly impressed him. 

Herbart explains his conceptions of the method of 
Pestalozzi in a number of works. Among them are 
"How Gertrude Teaches her Children" and ''To Three 
Women." 

While professor in Goething University, he wrote 
"Outlines of Pedagogic Lectures" and "General Peda- 
gogics," the most important of his writings. 

Herbart is called the founder of scientific pedagogics. 
''The aim of education he derived from ethics, the ways 
and means from psychological laws. He made Peda- 
gogics a department of applied science whose principles 
of application are founded upon psychology." 



OTHER EDUCATORS. 



There are many prominent teachers of the last fifty 
years, whose names have not yet found their place in 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 9T 

any one work on education, but whose influence on edu- 
cation should be noted by modern students of pedagogy. 
Some of them we will consider. 

Wm. T. Hatif^s, U. S. Commissioner of Education, is 
one of the foremost pedagogical thinkers of to-day. He 
believes in development according to self-activity and 
that school education and all education is a delicate mat- 
ter of adjustment, inasmuch as it deals with two factors, 
spontaneity and prescription. B. A.Hinsdale, professor 
oi pedagogy, University of Michigan, believes that ed- 
ucation begins with the being to be educated, that is, 
the child, and it culminates in his higher nature, that is, 
his mind. Col. Francis W. Parker, principal of Chicago 
normal school, is the author of the so-called Quincy 
method. James S. Hughes, inspector of public schools, 
I'oronto, Ontario, is the author of Mistakes in Teaching. 
W. N. Hailmann, ex-superintendent of Indian education, 
is the author of History of Pedagogy. L. Seeley, teacher 
of pedagogy in normal school, Trenton, N. J., Richard 
G. Boone, principal of Ypsilanti normal school and 
author of Education in the United States, E, W. 
Scripture, director of psychological labaratory, Yale Uni- 
versitv, A. S. Draper, president of Illinois University, T. 
G. Rooper, inspector of schools, England, G. Stanley Hall 
president of Clark University, Charles W. Elliot, pres- 
ident of Harvard College are among the foremost edu- 
cators of to-day. 



19TH CENTURY SUMMARY. 



The educational activity of the 19th century is unpre- 
cedented. It has produced remarkable resuhs in the 
condition of the lower classes. The century is noted for 



98 OUTLINES OF THE 

the growth of elementary education, professional train- 
ing of teachers, school supervision, manual and tech- 
nical training and the numerous associations for the dis- 
cussion of educational topics. Education is being or- 
ganized on a psychological and scientific basis. The 
church and the state have been separated. All members 
of the human family receive the benefits of an education. 
Education is regarded as a social problem. A deep sen- 
timent of humanity has been awakened — a calamity in 
one community awakens a deep sympathy in another. 



CHAPTER XV. 



COMMON SCHOOLS IN AMERICA. 

Massachusetts was the first colony to make a provision 
by law for the benefit of common schools. This law 
passed in 1642. It sought to make her scholars serve 
the state and enjoined upon the town universal education, 
but did not m.ake schooling free. The act of 1647 g'^-ve 
the school system of that state its birth. This made the 
first free schools in the world, with the exception of those 
in Sweden. Three years later Connecticut passed a 
similar act. Other New England states t'ollowed the ex- 
amples of these two pioneers of free schools. 

The Dutch early established schools in New Amster- 
dam. At the opening of the Revolution, several schools 
were supported in the colony. The English did not 
show the same interest in education that the Dutch had. 
In 1795 the first appropriation for common schools was 
made, but the common school system was not establish- 
ed until 181 3. The schools were made free in 1849, but 
remained so but for a short time. They have been free 
since 1867. 

Penn early introduced education into his colony, but 
later the school system was not progressive. The insti- 
tution of slavery in the south interfered with popular 
education there. 

There were no common schools south of Pennsylvania 



100 OUTLIIs^ES OF THE 

l)t'fore the revolution. Those who could afford it sent 
their sons across the waters for their education. There 
were, however, two exceptions to the above statement. 
'J'he Dorchester Seminary of grammar grade was estab- 
lished in South Carolina in 1734 by some Massachusetts 
gentlemen and the Battle Creek school of like rank in 
Maryland. 

After the American Declaration of Independence was 
jjassed, most of the American statesmen were in favor of 
meeting the necessity of public education. The con- 
gress of the confederation passed an act in 1785, reserv- 
ing lot No. 16 of every township of the Western Territory 
"for the m.aintenance of public schools within said town- 
ship." An act passed 3787 pertaining to the govern- 
ment of the ''territory of the U. S. northeast of the river 
Ohio" contained the following article :, "Religion moral- 
ity and knowledge being necessary to good government 
and the happiness of mankind, schools and the needs of 
education shall forever be encouraged." In 1802, Con- 
gress passed an act authorizing the states formed our of 
the Northwest Territory to reserve certain lands for 
school purposes. Similar compacts have been made 
with other states admitted into the Union. By act of 
July 23, 1787, congress ordered that when new states 
were formed, "not more than two complete townships 
be given perpetually for the purpose of a university."/ 
By act of 1862, Congress donated to each state thirty 
thousand acres of public land not otherwise reserved for 
"the support of colleges for the cultivation of agricultural 
and mechanical science and art." By act of 1836, Con- 
gress gave to each state thirty million dollars, the surplus 
in the U. S. treasury. Sixteen states used theirs for 
common school purposes. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 101 

Among the men who did much for popular educa- 
tion during- the early days of our republic was Dr. Ben- 
jamin Rush, of Pennsylvania, Gen. Francis Monroe, of 
South Carolina, Christopher Dock, of Pennsylvania, 
and Chauncey Lee, of New York. 

The text books early in use wereDilworth's Spelling 
Book, Hodder's Arithmetic, Webster's Spelling Book, 
Daboll's Arithmetic, Bailey's English and Latin 
Grammar, Lindley Alurray's Grammar, Morse's Geog- 
raphy, Webster's Historical Reader. 

By act Massachusetts established a high school ui 
1797. The Philadelphia high school was established in 
1837, the New York Free academ}' in 1849. 



SCHOOLS IN NEW YORK STATE. 

The first official act pertaining to public education in 
the state was enacted by the patrons in 1629 and related 
to the ways and means whereby they might supply a 
minister and a school-master. The first regular school- 
master, Adam Roelandsen taught school from 1633 to 
1639. Private school existed in the colony during the 
seventeenth century. In 1687 a Latin school was open- 
ed in New York city, and in 1702 an act was passed for 
the "encouragement of a grammar free school in the 
city of New York." Columbia, (King's) college was es- 
tablished in 1754. 

In 1784, the board of Regents of the University of tlie 
state of New York was created. In 1787, its powers 
were changed and much enlarged. This is the board 
that to -day has all matters pertaining to higher education 
in its hands. The Regents grant charters to colleges of 



102 OUTLINES OF THE 

tlie State, receive annual reports from them, admit sec- 
ondary schools under their supervision and inspection 
and have other duties pertaining to higher education of 
the state. The Regents' examinations date from 1828. 
To distribute the literature fund more equitably, examin- 
ations in the preliminary branches were ordered by an 
act July 7, 1864. Since 1870 all papers have been sent 
to Albany for reviev^. In June 1878, examinations were 
first held in advanced branches. Now, a student must 
hold in this state Regents' certificates of different grades 
to enter upon any professional course offered in the state. 

Governor Clinton in his message of 1795 to the legis- 
lature called for the establishment of common schools. 
By the passage of this act $50,000 was annually appropri- 
ated for five years for the purpose of teaching children 
the branches of an English education. This measure 
provided for county supervision. In 1800 this act was 
repealed. The Lancastrian system of conducting schools 
came into New York about 1809. It was a system of 
mutual instruction. By the aid of monitors several 
classes could recite at the same time. The first act 
contemplating a permanent system of common schools 
was passed in 18 12. 

In 18 12, through the recommendation of Governor 
Tompkins a bill providing for State aid to schools, in 
case the district should vote to levy by tax an equal 
amount was introduced in the legislature. This remain- 
ed a law until 1840. 

In 18 1 3 Gideon Hawley was elected first superintend- 
ent of schools, with a salary of $300. In 182 1 the super- 
intendent's functions were given to the Secretary of 
State. In 1838, the district school libraries were started. 
The office of county superintendent was created in 1841. 



HISTOEY OF EDUCATION. 103 

'J'he office of State superintendent was restored in 1854 
with Victor M. Rice as the first occupant of the office. 
'J'he Union Free School act was passed in 1853. In 1849 
and 1 85 1, acts were passed repeahng the old rate-bill, but 
the schools were not absolutely free until 1867. From 
that time, schools have been supported by tax. 

Among the superintendents of public instruction ap- 
pear the names of Victor M. Pace, 1854; Abrahani V. 
Weaver, 1874; Neil Gilmore, 1876; A. S. Draper, 1886; 
James F. Crocker, 1892 ; Charles R. Skinner, 1895 ; 
Under Secretary of State A. C. Flagg in 
1838 district libraries were established. Train- 
ing classes were organized in 1834 under the supervision 
of the Regents. In 1843, the first institute was held in 
Ithaca. In 1844 the first Normal School in the State was 
established in Albany with David P. Page as its principal. 

In 1874 a compulsory education law was enacted. The 
age limits were 8 and 14 years. In 1856 the office of 
school commissioner was created. The first State con- 
vention of teachers in this State was held inUtica in 1830. 

For the professional training of teachers the state has 
•established several normal schools, teachers' institutes in 
each county annually, summer institutes, and teachers' 
training classes in union schools. 

For the support of the schools the State has the litera- 
ture fund, the common school fund, the U. S. deposit 
fund, free school fund and local taxes. 

In 1784, the Board of Commissioners of the Land Of- 
fice in this State was empowered to reserve a lot of 300 
acres for the use of a minister and one of 390 for a school 
or schools. By an act of 1786, the Surveyor General was 
directed to mark one ''Gospel and Schools," the other 
"For Promoting Literature." The first became the 



104 OUTLINES OF THE 

nucleus of various school funds ; the latter the nucleus of 
the Literature fund. By the acts of 1790, 1801, 18 19, 
1827, 183 1 and others of more recent date, the Litera- 
ture fund distributed by the Regents for the benefit of 
academic and secondary schools in 1896 was $237,002.26. 
The common School fund had its origin in the act of 
1805. The net proceeds of 500,000 acres of unappro- 
priated land of the State were to be used as a fund for the 
support of the common schools. The fund at the present 
amounts to about $4,000,000, the income from which is 
about $170,000. 

The United States Deposit fund came from the nation- 
al treasury. By an act of Congress, during Jackson's ad- 
ministration, the surplus in the treasury excepting $5,- 
000,000 was directed to be distributed among the states. 
New York State's share was $4,014,520.71. This was 
applied to the common schools. 

The Free School fund is the term applied to the money 
raised by State tax. 



Normal Schools. — Albany normal college ; normal 
schools at Brockport, Buffalo, Cortland, Fredonia, 
Geneseo, Jamaica, New Paltz, Oneonta, Oswego, Platts- 
burgh, Potsdam. 

A few New York State CoUeges. — Columbia, Union, 
Hamilton, Colgate, St. John's, Cornell, Vassar,Wells, St. 
Francis, St. Lawrence, Elmira. 



APPENDIX, 



THE AIM OF EDUCATION AS VIEWED BY 
DIFFERENT PEOPLE AND PERSONS. 

Chinese : To impress traditional ideas and customs and 
to preserve the estabhshed order of society. 

Ancient Persia : Physical strength and moral rectitude. 

Ancient Hebrews : To become faithful servants of Je- 
hovah. 

Sparta : To train soldiers. 

Athens : Beautiful soul in beautiful body. 

Rome : To make a man fit to perform justly, skillfully 
and magnanimously all the offices, both pubhc and pri- 
vate, of peace and war. 

Socrates : To dispel error and discover truth. 

Plato : To give to body and soul all the beauty and all 
the perfection of which they are capable. 

Aristotle : Attainment of happiness through perfect 
virtue. 

Quintilian : To make orators. 

vSeneca : Not for school, but for life. 

Charlemagne : To make intehigent citizens. 

Monastic Schools : To foster interest of the church. 

Burgher Schools : To train for the practical wants of 
life. 



106 APPENDIX. 

Erasmus ; General education to prepare for future 
duties. 

Luther : More effective service in church and State. 

Melancthon : General education for service as citizen 
and subject. 

Sturm : Piety, knowledge, eloquence. 
\ Montaigne : To make men before specialists. 

Rabelias : To form a complete man, skilled in art and 
industry. 

Comenius: To obtain eternal happiness in and with 
God through education. 

Locke : Practical knowledge rather than mere learn- 
ing, and a sound mind in a sound body. 

Rousseau : Complete living. - i 

Pestalozzi : Natural, progressive and systematic de- 
velopment of all the powers. 

Froebel : To direct natural activities to useful ends. 



History of Education questions for training classes 
prepared by the Department of Public Instruction at Al- 
bany. 

JANUARY, 1896. 

1 (a) Name one Greek and one Roman educator, (b) State some idea 
concerning education for which each was noted. 

2. Name two distinguished teachers of the sixteenth century, and give 
a characteristic of each. 

3. State some way in which the cause of education has been furthered 
by each of the following: Martin Luther, Thomas Arnold, Horace 
Mann, David Page. 

4. (a) About what time were the Jesuit schools established? (b) State 
two characteristics that made their educational work effective. 



APPENDIX. 107 

5. Name an educational work of each of the following: Comenius, 
Locke, Spencer. 

6. What is the title of Rousseau's great educational work? Describe 
briefly the early training of the principal character therein. 

7- What are the principal features of the kindergarten education? 
"What great educator is regarded as the founder of this system? 

8. Give the leading facts in the life of Festalozzi. 

9. What is the oldest college in the state of New York? In what year 
was it founded? What was its original name? 

10. In what year were the public schools of the State of New York made 
free? Name four important measures that have since been adopted to 
promote education in the state. 

JUNE, 189G. 

1. Characterize briefly the education of the Israelites, the Athenians, 
and the Romans. 

2. For what is each of the following persons especially noted as edu- 
cators, (a) Euclid; (b) Genke; (c) Quintilian; (d) Arnold; (e) Charle- 
magne. 

3. Sketch the life of (a) Froebel; (b) Mann. 

4. State the chief characteristics of the Renaissance. About what time 

did it occur? 

5. Give the title of an important educational work of which was the au- 
thor: Comenius, Pestalozzi, Quick, Plato, Quintilian, Spencer, Locke, 
Fenelon. 

6. Make a brief statement showing the general character of the educa- 
tion during the Middle Ages. 

7. With what important act in connection with the public schools of 
New York is the name of (a) George Clinton; (b) Andrew S. Draper? 
About what time did each occur? 

8. State three principles enunciated by Pestalozzi. 

9. Name a prominent educator of the sixteenth century, of the. seven- 
teenth, and of the eighteenth century. 

10. (a) Where and about what time was the first normal school of the 
state established? (b) Who was its first principal and what educational 
book did he write? (c) Locate five other normal schools, (d) Name 
and locate four colleges of the state. 



108 APPENDIX. 

JANUARY, 1897. 

1. Give the prominent features in the educatioiial work of Pythagoras, 

2. Mention the characteristic features of the Spartan education. 

3. State some characteristic of educational work that is associated with 
each of the following names: Abelard, Strum, Ascham, Bacon, 
Montaigne. 

4. What have been the successive effects of Christianity upon education? 

5. Describe the monastic schools of the Middle Ages as to (.a) organiza- 
tion; (b) science of study; (c) aims; d() discipline. 

6. Compare the schools of the Jesuits and the schools of the Port Royal- 
ists as to (a) extent; (b) character of work; (c) results. 

7. Mention two leading causes and two leading results of the Renais- 
sance. 

8. Mention four prominent educators of the Renaissance and give the 
characteristics of the educational work of any two. 

9. Give a brief sketch of the career of Comenius as an educator. 

10. Write a brief historical sketch of the professional training of teachers 

in the state of New York. 

JUNE, 1897. 

1. Mention the prominent characteristics of the following educators: 
Plato, Euclid, Plutarch. 

2. (a) Into what two divisions were the Liberal Arts grouped? (b) 
Name the subjects included under each division. 

3. Name three noted educators who lived between the seventh and 
fourteenth centuries and mention an educational idea, principle or 
theory for which each is noted. 

4. Give the general characteristics of education during the period of the 
Renaissance. 

5. What were the "teaching societies?" To what centuries was the work 
principally confined? 

6. Give an estimate of the educational work of (a) Erasmus; (b) Sturm. 

7. Who wrote Emile, Institutes of Oratory, Education of Girls, Thoughts 
on Education, American School Journal? 

8. Name two noted English educators and mention prominent character- 
istics of their educational work. 

9. Sketch the life of Henry Barnard as an educator. 

10. What are the special functions of (a) the University of the State 
of New York; (b) the Department of Public Instruction. 



APPENDIX. 109 

JANUARY, 1898. 

1-2. Coirpare the contributions of the Oriental (Asiatic) nations to the 
cause of education with the contributions of the ancient classical na- 
tions (Greece and Rome). 

3. Name a prominent representative of (a) scholastic education; (b) hu- 
manistic education; (c) scientific or practical education. 

4. Arrange the following events in order of relative importance to ed- 
ucation and show how each influenced the Renaissance: invention of 
gunpowder; discovery of America; invention of printing: downfall of 
Constantinople. 

5-6. Give an idea of the general nature and character of the following 
books and name the author of each: Orbis Pictus; Emile. 

7. State the leading principles in the educational plan of Froebel. 

8. Give a brief sketch of Erasmus as an educator. 

9. Mention a prominent characteristic of the educational work of (a) 
Jacotot; (b) Spencer; (c) Aristotle. 

10. Compare the condition of education in this state during the early- 
part of the century with its present condition as to (a) the professional 
training of teachers; (b) comnion school education; (c) higher educa- 
tion. 

JUNE, 1898. 

1. Among what ancient people was each of the following the predomin- 
ant influence on education: (a) caste; (b) tradition; (c) theocracy ? 

2. Mention two respects in which the education of the Romans excelled. 

3. Mention three prominent educators that lived between (a) 500 B. C. 
and 300 B. C. ; (b) 1450 A. D. and 1600 A. D. 

4. State for what each of the following men is especially noted as an 
educator: Euclid, Saint Jerome, Abelard, Bacon, Page. 

5. Name the author of each of the following works and give the ap- 
proximate time when each was written: (a) Leonard and Gertrude; (b) 
The Republic; (c) Gate of Tongues Unlocked (Janua Linguarum Re- 
serata); (d) Education as a Science; (e) Novum Organum (or Insturatio 
Magna). 

€. State and explain the effect of the Crusades on the education of the 
Middle Ages. 

7. State three important ideas advanced by Locke in "Thoughts on Edu- 
cation". 



10 APPENDIX. 

8. Compare the condition and character of education in the sixteenth 
and eighteenth centuries. 

9. Mention two ways in which the National Government has directly ad- 
vanced education in the States. 

10. Give the names of three men that have served as Superintendent of 
Public Instruction in this State, and mention an important event in the 
administration of each. 

JANUARY, 1899. 

1. Describe the Socratic method of teaching and discuss its value. 

2. Compare the Greek with the Roman contributions to education as to 
(a) extent; (b) character; (c) value. 

3. Describe briefly the educational work of each of the following men, 
Quintilian, Melancthon, Page. 

4. Describe the Port Royalist Schools as to (a) origin; (b) course of 
study; (c) methods; (d) results. 

5. Name the authors of the following books, approximate time when 
written and give a general idea of its character: Republic;; How Ger- 
trude Teaches her Children. 

6. Mention two noted educators of the eighteenth century and charac- 
terize the educational work of each. 

7. Name an educational treatise of which Herbert Spencer is the author, 
and give a general idea of its character and influence. 

8. Name two prominent advocates of the study of the mother-tongue be- 
fore Latin and Greek, and two of the study of Latin and Greek before 
the mother-tongue. 

9. Describe the educational work of Horace Mann and account for its 
special prominence. 

10. Associate with each of the following dates an important educational 
event in the history of the State of New York: 1784, 1795, 1S05, 1S13, 1834, 

1813, 1844, 1867, 1889, 1835. 



INDEX. 



I'age. 

Abelard 50 

Aldhelm 49 

Almagest 26 

Alcuin 49 

Anabasis 24 

Appendix 105 

Aquinas 47 

Aristotle 22 

Arnold 89 

Asceticism 42 

Asfham 62 

Athenian and Spartan Ed. 

compared 16 

Athens 13 

Bacon 65 

Bain 91 

Barnard 95 

Basedow 78 

Bede 50 

Benedictines 46 

Charlemagne 48 

Chinese 5 

Colloquies 55 

Comenius 66 

Common schools 99 

Common school funds 102 

Crusades 44 

Cyropoedia 24 

Dominicans ... 47 



Page. 

Economics 24 

Education. 

Aesthetic 13 

Ancestral 5 

Caste 9 

Christian 39 

Eighteenth Century 76, 80 

During middle ages. . . .42, 51 

Greek 11 

Martial 15 

Nineteenth century 82 

Priestly 9 

Roman 29 

Seventeenth century 64, 75 

Sixteenth century 55, 63 

Theocratic 7 

Effect of Christianity on 

Ed 39 

Emile 77 

Effect of Greek Ed on 

Modern Ed 17 

Epicurus 12 

Erasmus 55 

Egyptians 9 

Euclid 25 

Fenelon 70 

Franciscans 47 

Froebel 85 

Grecian Education 18 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Greeks 11 

Greecian and Roman edu- 
cation compared 30 

Herbart 96 

tlindoos 6 

Humanities 53 

Inductive method 66 

Institutes of Oratory..... 32 

lustruMtio Magna 66 

Israelities 7 

Jacotot 88 

Jansensits 73 

Jesuits 71 

Lancastrian system 102 

Letters to Lucilius 36 

Liberal arts 43 

Loclve 68 

Luther 57 

Lyceum 22 

Maieutics 19 

Mann 92 

Melancthon 56 

\Ionastic schools 46 

Montaigne 61 

Natural history 35 

Object teaching 83 

Orati)rians 74 

Orbis Pictus 67 

Page 94 

Parallel lives ^. ... 34 

Paula ,.. '.".... 37 

Pestalozzi 82 

Port-Royalists 73 



Page. 

Phoenicians 10 

Plato 20 

Pliny 35 

Plutarch 34 

Politics 23 

Ptolemy 26 

Pythagoras 26 

Quintilian 32 

Quadri vium 43 

Questions 106 

Rabelais 59 

Raitch 64 

Renaissance 52 

Republic 20 

Roman Education 29 

Roman Educators 32 

Rousseau 76 

St. Augustine 38 

St. Jerome 37 

Scholasticism 53 

Schools in N. Y. State 101 

Seneca 36 

Socrates 18 

Sophists 18 

Sparta 15 

Saxony School plan 57 

Spencer 90 

Strabo 25 

Sturm 60 

Trivium 43 

Varro 35 

Xenophon 24 



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